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THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edit

Ion, published

in three

volumes,

1768— 1771.

SECOND ,

» >>

ten

1777— 1784.

THIRD ,

y ?

eighteen

17S8— 1797.

FOURTH ,

9 »

twenty

1801 — 1810.

FIFTH ,

9 »

twenty

1815—1817.

SIXTH ,

» »

twenty

1823 — 1824.

SEVENTH ,

> »

twenty-one

1830— 1842.

EIGHTH ,

» J

twenty-two

l8 53— 1860.

NINTH ,

> >

twenty-five

1875—1889.

TENTH ,

, ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes,

1902 — 1903.

ELEVENTH ,

, publi

shed

in twenty-nine volumes,

1910 — 1911.

in all countries subscribing to the

Bern Convention

THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

All rights reurvtd

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME IV

BISHARTN to CALGARY

New York

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

342 Madison Avenue

The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME IV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. B. R.
A. B. H.

A. E. S.

A. F. P.

-S.

A. J. G.

A. J. L.

A. Lo.

Me.

M. C.

S. C.

A. T. Q.-C

W. H.*

Alfred Barton Rendle, F.R.S., F.L.S., M.A., D.Sc.
Keeper of the Department of Botany, British Museum.

A. E. Houghton.

Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the
Bourbons in Spain.

Arthur Everett Shipley, F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc.

\ Botany.

Cabrera.

Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge i Brachiopoda.
University. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I

Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc.

Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of all Souls'
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-
1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford), 1892. Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Thomas Cranmer; &c.

Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A.

Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

Bonner;
Burghley, Baron.

J Blandrata; Brenz;
I Buckholdt.

Arthur Henry Bullen. f

Founder of the Shakespeare Head Press, Stratford-on-Avon. Editor of Collection "j Burton, Robert.
of Old English Plays; Lyrics from the Song Books of the Elizabethan Age; &c. I

Bushire.

Brooch.

Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, CLE.

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak.

Arthur Hamilton Smith, M.A., F.S.A.

Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. .
Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Catalogue of
Greek Sculpture in the British Museum ; &c. L

Rev. Alexander J. Grieve, M.A., B.D. f

Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent -I Butler Bishop (in part).

College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of

Mysore Educational Service. l _ . , _ ,. . _

r Bogota; Bolivia: Geography

Andrew Jackson Lamoureux. _ __ _ __ .._.._ J and Statistics; Brazil: Gee-

Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University,
de Janeiro), 18 79-1 901.

Editor of the Rio News (Rio '

graphy and Statistics;
Buenos Aires.

Auguste Longnon.

Professor at the College de France. Director of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute. Author of Geo-
graphie de la Gaule au VI. siecle; Documents relatifs au comte de Champagne et de
Brie; &c.

Mrs Alice Meynell.

Author of Poems ; Later Poems ; The Rhythm of Life and other Essays ; &c.

Miss Agnes Mary Clerke.

See the biographical article: Clerke, A. M.

Alfred Newton, F.R.S.

See the biographical article: Newton, Alfred.

Alan Summerly Cole, C.B. r

Formerly Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington. Author of J Brocade
Ornament in European Silks ; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian 1
Textiles in Victoria and Albert Museum; &c.

Sir Arthur T. Quiller-Couch.

See the biographical article: Quiller-Couch, Sir A. T.

Arthur William Holland. f Brandenburg: Margr aviate-.

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ Burdett, Sir Francis.

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volumvs.

Blois: Countship of.

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett

Brahe, Tycho.

Bunting; Bustard;
Buzzard.

\ Brown, Thomas Edward.

A. W. Po.

A. W. R,

B. R.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Book;

Book Collecting.

Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws < Boarding-House.

Bitumen.

Brequigny.

Bookbinding.

C. El.

C. E. S.
C. H.

C. K. S.
C. L. K.
C. Pf.

C. S. S.

C W. W.

D. B. Ma.

D. C. B.
D. C. T.
D. F. T.

D.H.

Alfred William Pollard, M.A.

Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King's College,
London. Hon. Secretary, Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books
and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of The Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe "
Chaucer.

Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B.

Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon.
of England.

Sir Boverton Redwood, D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.Inst.C.E.,
M.Inst.M.E.
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of
London, and Port of Londpn Authority. President of the Society of Chemical -
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of
Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum ; Petroleum and its
Products; Chemical Technology; &c.

Charles Bemont, D. is. L., Litt.D. (Oxon.).
See the biographical article : Bemont, C.

Cyril J. H. Davenport, F.S.A.

Assistant to the Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Cantor Lecturer on
Decorative Bookbindings, Society of Arts. Author of Royal English Bookbindings ; '
English Embroidered Bookbindings ; History of the Book ; &c.

Hon. Carroll Davidson Wright.

See the biographical article : Wright, C. D.

Charles Everitt, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Formerly Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.

C. E. Akers.

Formerly The Times Correspondent in Buenos Aires.
America, 1854-1904.

Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f

Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. . . .

H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Pro- 1 Bokhara (in part).
tectorate ; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar ; and Consul-General for German
East Africa, 1900-1904. Author of Turkey in Europe; Letters from the FarEast;&c. '-

Hon. Charles Emory Smith.

See the biographical article: Smith, Charles Emory.

Charles Hose, D.Sc.

Formerly Divisional Resident and Member of the Supreme Council of Sarawak. .
Author of A Descriptive Account of the Mammals of Borneo, and numerous papers in
scientific journals. L

Cllment King Shorter. f

Editor of the Sphere. Author of Charlotte Bronte and her Circle; The Brontes : "j Bronte, C, E. and A.

Life and Letters; &c. L

Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A.

Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor -

of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.

Christian Pfister, D. is. L.

("Building Societies: United

\ States.

\ Bone: Industrial.

Author of A History of South A Brazil: History (in part).

Blaine.

Brunei.

Buckingham, 2nd Duke of.

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J u rnn i. sm«
Atude sur le regne de Robert le Pieux; Le Duche merovingien d' Alsace et la legende de\ Brunnllaa '
Saint-Odile. I

Charles Scott Sherrington, D.Sc, M.D., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 1

Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies J
of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrative Action of the]
Nervous System.

Major-General Sir Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S., R.E.

(1836-1897).
Secretary to the North American Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British,
Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Commission. Director-General of the
Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of Military Education, 1895-
1898. Author of From Korti to Khartum; Life of Lord Clive; &c.

Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D.

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author of _
Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory ; Selections
from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Altitude and Life in Islam; &c.

Demetrius Charles Boulger.

Author of History of Belgium.; England and Russia in Central Asia; History of -
China ; Life of Gordon ; India in the 19th Century ; &c.

David Croal Thomson.

Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of Tlie Brothers Maris; The Barbizon-
School of Painters; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c.

Donald Francis Tovey.

Balrfol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The .
Classical Concerts, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical
works.

David Hannay.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
J3iy-i6S8; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c.

Author of Short History of Royal Navy,

Brain: Physiology.

Caesarea Mazaca (in part).

Bukhara;
Cadi.

Bruges;
Brussels.

Browne, Hablot Knight.

Boccherini;
Bruckner.

Bouvet; Brenton;
Brigandage; Buccaneers;
. Byng; Calderon, Rodrigo.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

D. LI. T.

D. Mn.
E.Br.

E. Ca.
E. C. B.

E. L. B.

E. Ma.

E. 0.*
E. Pr.

E.Wa.

E. W. B.

F. By.

F. D. A.
F. G. P.

F.H.
F. J. C,

Daniel Lleufer Thomas.

Stipendiary Magistrate for Pontypridd and Rhondda. Formerly Assistant Com-
missioner to the Labour Commission and Secretary to the Welsh Land Commission.

Rev. Dugald Macfadyen, M.A.

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London
Missionary Society. Author of Constructive Congregational Ideals.

Ernest Barker, M.A.

Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, Oxford.
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.

Egerton Castle, M.A., F.S.A.

Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of English Book Plates ; Bibliotheca Dimicatcria ;
&c.

Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., D.Litt.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.

Edmond Esmonin.

Edmund Gosse, LL.D.

See the biographical article : Gosse, Edmund

Ernest Hartley Coleridge, M.A.

Balliol College, Oxford. Editor of Byron's Poems; Letters of Samuel Taylor Cole-
ridge; &c.

Sir Edward H. Bunbury, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895).

M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography;
&c.

Brecon;
Caerphilly.

("Blaikie; Boston, Thomas;
1 Bruce, Alexander Balmain;
L Cairns, John.

Formerly i Bohemund.

Book Plates.

|" Bridgittines;

■\ Brothers of Common Life;
•-Bruno, Saint.

fBombelles, Marc Marie,
I Marquis de.
("Bjornson; Blank Verse;
■j Bouts-Rimes; Bucolics;
L Busken-Huet.

Byron.

H Bithynia (in pari).

Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. j" B 0sporus cimmerius*

Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, 1 RiifKni '

Cambridge. University Lecturer in Palaeography. I BUdlm.

Bleaching.

■J Brook Farm.

Head Master of Eton i Boat.

Edmund Knecht, Ph.D., F.I.C.

Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing,
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor
of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists.

Edward Livermore Burlingame, A.M., Ph.D.

Editor of Scribner's Magazine. Formerly on Staff of New York Tribune.

Edward Manson.

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Joint-editor with Sir John Macdonell, C.B., i Bond.
of the Journal of Comparative Legislation. Author of Law of Trading Companies ; &c.

Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Bladder and Prostate Diseases;
Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cam- 1 Bone: Medical.
bridge, Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. <-

Edgar Prestage. f

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- J
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal | Bocage.
Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Examiner in Portuguese
in the University of London, Manchester, &c. *-

Rev. Edmond Warre, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O.

Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford.
College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c.

Sir Edward William Brabrook, C.B.

Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies, 1891-1904. J Building Societies:
Author of Building Societies; Provident Societies and Industrial Welfare; Institutions 1 United Kingdom,
for Thrift ; &c. I

Frank Brinkley. f

Captain R.N. Foreign Adviser to Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Tokyo. Correspondent of J p._; n T c i nrl r1 c
The Times in Japan. Editor of the Japan Mail. Formerly Professor of Mathe- com " «««*nua.
matics at Imperial Engineering College, Tokyo. Author of Japan ; &c. I

Frank Dawson Adams, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. [

Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science, and Logan Professor of Geology, McGill { British Columbia (in part).
University, Montreal. President of Canadian Mining Institute. I

Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst.

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. -! Brain: Anatomy.
Formerly Examiner in the Universities of Cambridge, Aberdeen, London and Bir-
mingham; and Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.

Francis Hueffer, Ph.D. (1845-1899).

Formerly Musical Critic of The Times.- Author of The Troubadours: a History of ^
Provencal Life and Literature in the Middle Ages; Richard Wagner and the Music of'
the Future. Editor of Great Musicians.

Sir Francis J. Campbell, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.S.A.

Principal, Royal Normal College for the Blind, Norwood, London.
Papers on the Education of the Blind.

Boccaccio.

Author oi\ Blindness.

Vlll

F. J* M.
F. LI. G.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

We.

G. E.

G. F. Z.
G. G. P.*
G. L. G.

G. M. D.

T. G.

W. Ca.

W. T.

Br.

Ch.

CI.

H. De.
H. Fr.
H. H. J.
H. M. C.

Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.

Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student,
Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Author
of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c.

Francis Llewelyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A.

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and
Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Hon. Member of ^Imperial
German Archaeological Institute, the Societe Asiatique, and the Institut Egyptien,
Cairo. Author of Stones of the High Priests of Memphis; Catalogue of the Demotic
Papyri in the Rylands Collection, Manchester ; &c.

Lady Lugard.

See the biographical article: Lugard, Sir F. J. D.

Frank R. Cana.

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.

Francis Richard Maunsell, C.M.G.

Lieut. -Col. R.A. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurdistan), 1897-
1898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. Author of
Central Kurdistan ; &c.

Frederick Wedmore.

See the biographical article : Wedmore, F.

Frederick William Hasluck, M.A.

Assistant Director, British School of Archaeology,
College, Cambridge. Browne's Medallist, 1901.

Frederick William Maitland, LL.D.

See the biographical article: Maitland, F. W.

George A. Boulenger, D.Sc, Ph.D., F.R.S.

In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British '
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.

Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. [Bolivia: History {in part)]

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909- J Brabant: Duchy
1910. Employed by British Government in preparation of the British Case in the | D ra7 :i. it- < /• h ,\

Boadicea;

Britain: Pre- Roman and

Roman;
Caerleon; Caledonia.

Bubastis;

Busiris;

Buto.

J Bornu;

I British Empire.

4 British East Africa.

Bitlis.

Boudin.

Athens. Fellow of King's -j Bithynia (in part).

Bracton.

Caecilia.

{

Bread.

Burial and Burial Acts.

Blood: Pathology of the.

British Columbia (in part).

British Guiana-Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations.

G. F. Zimmer, A.M.Inst.CE., F.Z.S.

Author of Mechanical Handling of Material.

George Grenville Phillimore, M.A., B.C.L.

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple.

George Lovell Gulland, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.).

Assistant Physician to the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh. Lecturer on Medicine at
Surgeons' Hall, Edinburgh.

George Mercer Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S.

Formerly Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. Geologist and Naturalist
to H.M. North American Boundary Commission, 1873-1875; one of H.M. Bering
Sea Commissioners, 1891. Author of numerous scientific and technical reports
printed by the Canadian Government.

Sir George D. Taubman Goldie.

See the biographical article: Goldie, Sir G. D. T.

George Washington Cable.

See the biographical article: Cable, G. W.

Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D. r

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and J Buhturl;
Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. 1 Buslrl.

Henry Bradley, M.A., Ph.D. r

Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British Academy. J Caedmon.
Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c. 1

Hugh Chisholm, M.A. r Boulanger

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth Edition of -j oriJomtn ' T aura n
the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the 10th edition. I BrlQ S man > Liaura U.

-T

Brazza, Count de.

\ Bryant, William Cullen.

Sir Hugh Charles Clifford, K. C.M.G.

Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly
Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author-
of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary
of the Malay Language.

Rev. Hippolyte Delehaye, S.J.

Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Acta Sanctorum.

Borneo.

Henri Frantz.

Art Critic, Gazette des Beaux Arts (Paris).

Sir Henry Hamilton Johnston, K.C.B., G.C.M.G.
See the biographical article: Johnston, Sir H. H.

Hector Munro Chad wick, M.A.

Fellow and Librarian of Clare College Cambridge.
Saxon Institutions.

j Bollandists.

J Bocklin;
LBonheur, Rosa.

\ British Central Africa.

Author of Studies on Anglo-

\ Britain:

Anglo-Saxon.

. P. B.

S.J.

W. C. D,

W. S.

A. F. M.

, G.

C. A,

Sc.

. R.

J.*

Mo.

P.-

Pe.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix

Henry Percival Biggar. - J

Author of The Voyages of the Cabots to Greenland. \ Cabot, John.

Henry Stuart Jones, M.A. r

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J p ae . np t..v
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. 1 oaesar > JuuUS.
Author of The Roman Empire ; &c. I

Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. f Bohun;

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, < Breaute, Falkes de;
1895-1902. Author of Charlemagne; England under the Normans and Angevins; &c. Burgh Hubert de.

H. Wickham Steed. f

Correspondent of The Times at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna. 1 Bonghi, RuggerO.

John Alexander Fuller Maitland, M.A., F.S.A. f

Musical Critic of The Times. Author of Life of Schumann; The Musician's Pilgrim-
age; Masters of German Music; English Music in the Nineteenth Century; The Age\ Brahms.
of Bach and Handel. Editor of the new edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music
and Musicians; &c. "--

J. A. H. John Allen Howe, B.Sc. ■ J Bunter;

Curator and Librarian, Museum of Practical Geology, London. 1 Cainozoic.

J. A. M. James Alexander Manson. r

Formerly Literary Editor of the Daily Chronicle. Author of The Bowler's Handbook ; -I Bowls.
&c. [

J. B.* Joseph Burton. J" uric* (in part).

Partner in Pilkington's Tile and Pottery Co., Clifton Junction, Manchester. 1

J. Bt. James Bartlett. f „ . . .

Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c, King's College, J BrlCKWOrK,
London. Member of Society of Architects, Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity 1 Building.
Surveyors' Association. Author of Quantities. I

J.C.C. J. W Comyns-Carr. J Blak wmiam>

Author of Essays on Art; &c. [.

J. D. B. James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S. r

Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders J _ ,

of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the ] Bulgaria.

Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. I

J. E. H. Julius Eggeling, Ph.D. [nrahman. n-ohmano.

Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, Edinburgh University. Formerly -I ° ra J| man » Branmana,
Secretary and Librarian to Royal Asiatic Society. (_ Branmanism.

3. F.-K. James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. ("

Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. I Breton de lOS HerrerOS;

Norman MacColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 Caballero;

Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Calderon de la Barca

Literature; &c. *-

John George Clark Anderson, M.A. f

Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, -j Caesarea Mazaca (in part).
Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. L

Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E. J Boiler; Boiler-making;

Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c. 1 Brazing and Soldering.

Sir James George Scott, K.C.I. E. f

Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma ; 1 Burma.
The Upper Burma Gazetteer.

John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). J

Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and] Burgh.
Pedigree; &c. [_

John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D. r

Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge Uni- J Bonaparte: Family (in part).
versity Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic 1 Bourrienne
Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. [

Joseph Jefferson. r .

See the biographical article: Jefferson, J. \ Booth, Edwin.

John Malcolm Mitchell. ^Boule*

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London i ' .

College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. I Br««0, Giordano (in part).

Viscount Morley of Blackburn. J T> llr fc rj mlln j

See the biographical article: Morley, Viscount. \ BurKe > MmBMl

John Nichol. { n „_ c „„. ,

See the biographical article: Nichol, John. ^ Burns, KODeri.

James George Joseph Penderel-Brodhurst. ("Bookcase; Boulle;

Editor of the Guardian (London). \ Cabinet: Furniture.

Rev. John Punnett Peters, Ph.D., D.D. f

Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in j Bismya;
the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Baby- "j Borsippa;
Ionia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Calah.
Euphrates; Scriptures. Hebrew and Christian. ' <■

J. S. F.

J. T. M.

J. T. S.*
J. W. D.

J. W. He.

K. G. J.

K. J.

K. S.
L.

L. B.
L. D.*
L. F. S.
L. F. V.-H.

L. G.
L. J. S.

L. R. D.

L. S.
L. V.*

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Bat.

Br.

John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S.

Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in .
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh* Bigsby
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.

James Tayler Milton, M.I.C.E.

Chief Engineer Surveyor to Lloyd's Registry of Shipping. Vice-President, Institute
-of Naval Architects. Member of Council, Institute of Marine Engineers. Author
of many papers on Marine Engineering subjects.

James Thomson Shotwell, Ph.D.

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.

Captain J. Whitly Dixon, R.N.

Nautical Assessor to Court of Appeal since 1906. Formerly Staff Commander,
Medway Fleet Reserve.

James Wycliffe Headlam, M.A.

Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German
Empire; &c.

Kingsley Garland Jayne.

Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford.
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors.

J Borolanite;
1 Breccia.

' Boiler.

Boniface, Saint.

Buoy;
Cable.

Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903,

A. Keith Johnston.

See the biographical article: Johnston, A. K.

Kathleen Schlesinger.

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra ; &c.

Count Lutzow, Litt.D. (Oxon.), Ph.D. (Prague), F.R.G.S.

Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member
of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c.
Author of Bohemia: An Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester
Lecture, Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c.

Laurence Binyon.

See the biographical article : Binyon, L.

Louis Duchesne.

See the biographical article: Duchesne, L. M. O.

Leslie Frederic Scott, K.C., M.A.

New College, Oxford. Joint Hon. Secretary of International Maritime Committee.

Leveson Francis Vernon-Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst.CE. (1839-1907). f

Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. British J Breakwater;
Member of Jury for Civil Engineering, Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of Rivers I Caisson.
and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as Applied in Construction; &c. *-

Bismarck;
Bucher, Lothar.

/Bosnia and Herzegovina;
1 British Honduras.

-j Brazil: History (in part).

Bombardon; Bow;
Buccina; Bugle;
Bumbulum.

Bohemia: History and Litero
lure.

Burne-Jones, Sir E. B.
Boniface (Popes I.-VII.).
Broker.

Laurence Ginnell, M.P.

Barrister, Middle Temple and Irish Bar. Author of Brehon Laws; Land and Liberty; '
&c. M.P. for North Westmeath since 1906.

Leonard James Spencer, M.A.

Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington.
Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. -
Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. Author of English translations of M. Bauer's
Precious Stones and R. Brauns's Mineral Kingdom.

Lawrence Robert Dicksee, M.Com. (Birmingham), F.C.A.

Lecturer, London School of Economics and Political Science. Formerly Professor
of Accounting at Birmingham University. Author of Auditing; Advanced Account-'
ing; Book-keeping; &c.

Sir Leslie Stephen, K.C.B.

See the biographical article: Stephen, Sir L.

Luigi Villari.

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre-
spondent in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phil-,
adelphia, 1907; and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town
and Country ; Giovanni Segantini ; Russia under the Great Shadow ; Fire and Sword
in the Caucasus ; &c.

Lord Macaulay.

See the biographical article: Macaulay, T. B. M., Baron.

Miss Mary Bateson (1865-1906).

Formerly Fellow of Newnham College, Cambridge. Author of Medieval England;
Borough Customs; &c.

Miss Margaret Bryant.

Moses Gaster, Ph.D. (Leipzig).

Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and By-
zantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England.
Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian
Popular Literature; A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; The Hebrew Version of
the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle.

Brehon Laws.

Bismuthite; Blende;
Boracite; Bournonite;
Brochantite; Bromlite;
Bronzite; Brookite;
Brucite; Bytownite;
Calamine; Calcite.

Book-keeping.

Browning, Robert.

Borgia, Cesare;
Borgia, Lucrezia;
Cagliostro.

j Bunyan, John.

Borough: English.
■I Caesar: Medieval Legends.

Bogomils;
Brancovan.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

M.P.*

M. St J.
N. W. T.

0.8a.

O.Br.
0. H.

P. A. K.
P. C. M.

P. C. Y.
P. Si.

P. G. K.
P.S.

P. W. C.

A.*

R. Ad.

A. S.

LP.

J.M.

L.*

N. 8.

Leon Jacques Maxime Prinet. r

Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute of T> r : _„ i. rJiSfoon.
France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). Author of V Industrie du sel en\ » r |enne-ie-onaieaU,
Franche-Comte; Les Armoiries ecarteles des conjoints; Francois I et le comte de Bour- Wrissac, Dukes Of.
gogne. L

Molyneux St John. -J British Columbia: {in part).

Northcote Whitbridge Thomas, M.A. C

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the | Tj nnmBr _
Societe d' Anthropologic de Paris. Author of Thought Transference ; Kinship and "1 -Boomerang.
Marriage in A ustralia ; &c.

Oswald Barron, F.S.A.

Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the Honourable Society of the Baronetage.
Editor of the Ancestor, 1902-1905.

Oscar Briliant.

Olaus Magnus Friedrich Henrici, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the City .
and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent Figures;
&c.

Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin.

See the biographical article : Kropotkin, P. A.

Peter Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.

Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com-
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.
Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital,
1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901-
1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.

Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.

Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D.

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University
Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the Cambridge Philological
Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology; &c.

Paul G. Konody.

Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. •
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c.

Philip Schidrowitz, Ph.D., F.C.S.

Member of Council, Institute of Brewing. Member of Committee of Society of '_
Chemical Industry. Author of numerous articles on the Chemistry and Technology
of Brewing, Distilling, &c.

Peter William Clayden (d. 1902).

Formerly President, Institute of Journalists, London. Literary Editor of the
Daily News. Author of Scientific Men and Religious Teachers; England under Lord-
Beaconsfield; Early Life of Samuel Rogers; Rogers and his Contemporaries; England
under the Coalition; &c.

Butler: Family.

J Bohemia: Geography and
I Statistics; Budapest.

Calculating Machines.

("Bokhara: (in part);
\ Bulgaria: Eastern.

Breeds and Breeding.

Boleyn, Anne; Bolingbroke;

Bothwell;

Bristol, 1st and 2nd Earls of;

Buckingham, 1st Duke of

(in part) ;
Buckingham, 2nd Duke of.

Bordone.

Brandy;
Brewing.

Bright, John.

Robert Anchel.

Archivist to the Department de l'Eure.

Robert Adamson, LL.D.

See the biographical article : Adamson, R.

Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A.

St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine
tion Fund.

Richard Garnett, LL.D.

See the biographical article: Garnett, R.

R. I. Pocock, F.Z.S.

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.

Ronald John McNeill, M.A. r

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of St James's Gazette, -\ Bunker Hill.
London.

fBoissy D' Anglais, Francois
1 Antoine de.

f Bonaventura, Saint;
-j Bruno, Giordano (in part) ;
I Butler, Bishop (in part).
(" Bozrah;
Explora- j Caesarea Palaestina;
L Caesarea Philippi.

{

Burton, John Hill.

f Book-Scorpion;

I Caddis-Fly and Caddis- Worm.

Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.L.S.

Member of Staff of Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of Catalogues of'
Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum ; &c.

Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909).

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 15 13-1900; The First Romanovs, <
16 1 j to 1725; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469
to 1796; &c.

Bison;

Bovidae;

Buffalo.

Bocskay, Stephen;
Boris Fedorovich Godunov;
Boyar; Brahe, Per;
Buslaev, Fedor Ivanovich.

Xll
R. P.*
R. Po.

S. A. C.

S. C.
StC.
S. H. V.*

S. L.-P.

S. R. G.

T. AS.

T. Ba.

T. G. Br.
T. H. H.*

T. Se.

T. W.-D.
T. W. R. D.

W. A. B. C.

W. A. P.
W. B.*
W. B. S.*

Cain;
Caleb.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Robert Peele. /Blasting;

Professor of Mining in Columbia University, New York. \ Boring.

Rene Poupardin, D. es L. r

Secretary to the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian to the Bibliotheque J
Nationale. Author of Le Royaume de Bourgogne; Le Royaume de Provence sous les\ Burgundy,
Carolingiens ; &c. [_

Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew
and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society,
1904-1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and
the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient
Palestine; &c.

Sidney Colvin, M.A., Litt.D.

See the biographical article: Colvin, Sidney.

Viscount St Cyres.

See the biographical article: Iddesleigh: ist Earl of.

Sydney Howard Vines, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S.

Sherardian Professor of Botany, Oxford University. Fellow of Magdalen College.
Author of Lectures on the Physiology of Plants ; Text-Book of Botany ; &c.

Stanley Lane-Poole, M.A., Litt.D.

Formerly Professor of Arabic, Dublin University, and Examiner in the University
of Wales. Corresponding Member of the Imperial Russian Archaeological Society.
Member of the Khedivial Commission for the Preservation of the Monuments of 1
Arab Art, &c. Author of Life of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe; Life of Sir Harry I
Parkes ; Cairo ; Turkey ; &c. Editor of The Koran ; The Thousand and One Nights ; &c. [

Botticelli.

Bossuet.

{Brongniart, Adolphe
Theodore.

Burton, Sir Richard Francis.

Samuel Rawson Gardiner, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: Gardiner, S. R.

Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.).

Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Member of the Imperial
German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford.
Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Author of The Classical
Topography of the Roman Campagna.

Sir Thomas Barclay, M.P.

Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of
International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.

Author of Essentials

Thomas Gregor Brodie, M.D., F.R.S.

Professor of Physiology in the University of Toronto.
Experimental Physiology.

Sir Thomas Hungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I. E., D.Sc.

Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S.,
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's
Award; India; Tibet; &c.

f Buckingham, 1st Duke of (it,
I part).

Bologna; Bolsena; Bononia;

Borgo San Donnino;

Bovianum; Bovillae;

Bracciano; Brescia;

Brindisi; Brundisium;

Bruttli; Caere; Cagli;

Cagliari; Caietae Portus;
I Calabria.

Blockade.

Anatomy and
Physiology.

f Blood

Bolan Pass;
Brahmaputra.

Thomas Seccombe, M.A. r

Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. ) Boswell.
Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. . Assistant Editor of Dictionary of National"]
Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. I

Theodore Watts-Dunton.

See the biographical article: Watts-Dunton, T.

T. W. Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D.

Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal .
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists
Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c.

Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, ,St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of i
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald ; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889, &c.

Borrow.

Buddha;

Buddhaghosa;

Buddhism.

Bitzius; Blane, Mont;
Bonstetten; Botzen;
Bourrit; Bregenz;
Brenner Pass; Briancon;
Brieg; Brienz, Lake of;
Brignoles; Brixen;
Burckhardt, Jakob; Burgdofi

Bishop;
Brunhild.

Walter Alison Phillips, M.A.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, .
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c.

William Burton, M.A., F.C.S. r

Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Author of J Brick (in part).
English Stoneware and Earthenware ; &c. [

William Barclay Squire, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. r

Assistant in charge of Printed Music, British Museum. Hon. Secretary of the J g vr fl
Purcell Society. Formerly Musical Critic of Westminster Gazette, Saturday Review 1 * *
and Globe. Editor of Byrd's Masses. L

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

X1U

Hd.

W.*

H.*

R. C.

Wr.

F.*

R.*

William Charles Smith, K.C., M.A., LL.D.

Formerly Sheriff of Ross, Cromarty and Sutherland. Editor of Judicial Review, -
1889-1900.

William Cawthorne Unwin, LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E.,
A.R.I B.A. .

Emeritus Professor of Engineering, Central Technical College, City and Guilds of
London Institute. Author of Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs ; Treatise on Hydraulics. I

Wilfranc Hubbard. f_ ,. . TT . 1 ,. ^ A

Correspondent of The Times in Rome. j Bolivia: History (in part).

William H. Lang, D.Sc. f

Barker Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, University of Manchester. Author of .
Papers on Botanical Subjects, including Morphology and life history of Bryophyta,
Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms, in scientific journals.

William Henry Whitfeld, M.A.

Trinity College, Cambridge. Card Editor of the Field.

W. J. Hughan.

Past Senior Grand Deacon of Freemasons of England, 1874. Hon. Senior Warden -
of Grand Lodges of Egypt, Quebec and Iona, &c.

Right Rev. William Lawrence, D.D., LL.D.

Bishop of Massachusetts. Author of Study of Phillips Brooks; Life of Roger -
Wolcotl; &c.

William Lawson Grant, M.A. f

Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly J '
Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy 1 1
Council (Canadian Series). I

William Liest Readwin Cates (1821-1895).

Editor of Dictionary of General Biography. Author of A History of England from
the Death of Edward the Confessor to the Death of King John. Part author of Encyclo-
paedia of Chronology.

William Michael Rossetti.

See the biographical article: Rossetti, Dante Gabriel.

Borough: Irish and Scottish.

Bridges.

Bryophyta.
Bridge: Game.
Builders' Rites.

Brooks, Phillips.

Brock, Sir Isaac;
Brown, George.

Boscovich.

W. R. Lethaby, F.S.A.

Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council.
Author of Architecture, Mysticism and Myth; &c.

William Stanley Jevons. LL.D.

See the biographical article: Jevons, William Stanley.

Williston Walker, Ph.D., D.D.

Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congrega-
tional Churches in the United States; The Reformation; John Calvin; &c. [_

William Warde Fowler, M.A. f

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, J Bona Dea.
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; 1
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c. I

William Walker Rockwell, Lie. Theol. J" ij on jf aee (p n e s VIII.-IX.).

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. \ "'

Brown, Ford Madox.

Byzantine Art.

Boole.

Bushnell, Horace.

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Bismuth.

Bizet, Georges.

Black Sea.

Blackstone.

Blake, Robert.

Blanc, Louis.

Blasphemy.

Blenheim.

Blowpipe.

Blucher.

Bliintschli.

Bockh.

Boehme.

Boeotia.

Boetius.

Boileau-Despreaux.

Bolivar.

Bombay.

Bonn.

Bonnet, Charles.

Bookselling.

Bopp.

Boraginaceae.

Bordeaux.

Borders, The.

Boric Acid.

Boron.

Borromeo.

Boston.

Bptocudos.

Bottomry.

Bouguereau.

Bourbon.

Bourges.

Bourget.

Bow-Leg.

Bowling.

Bowring, Sir John.

Boxing.

Boyle, Robert.

Bracelet.

Brackley.

Bradford.

Bradlaugh, Charles.

Brahma Samaj.

Brake.

Brandes.

Brassey.

Breadalbane.

Bread-Fruit.

Breconshire.

Bremen.

Breslau.

Brest.

Bretschneider.

Breviary.

Brewster, Sir David.

Bribery.

Brisbane.

Bristol.

Brittany.

Broglie, de.

Bromine.

Bronchitis.

Bronze.

Brooke, Fulke Greville.

Brooke, Sir James.

Brooklyn.

Brougham.

Brown, John.

Browne, Sir Thomas.

Brunei.

Brunswick.

Brush.

Brutus.

Bryan, William J.
Buchanan, George.
Buchanan, James.
Bucharest.
Buckingham, Earls,

Marquesses and

Dukes of.
Buckinghamshire.
Buckle.
Budget.

Buffalo, U.S.A.
Buffon, G. L. E., Comte

de.
Bull-Fighting.
Bull Run.
Bttlow, Prince von.
Bunsen, C. C. J., Baron

von.
Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm

von.
iurdett-Coutts,

Baroness.
Burglary.
Burgos.
Burmese Wars.

Burnet, Gilbert.

Burney, Charles.

Burr, Aaron.

Bushmen.

Bute.

Butler, Benjamin

Franklin.
Butler, Samuel.
Button.
Buxton.

Buxtorf, Johannes.
Byzantium.
Cab.

Cabbage.

Cabinet (Political).
Cactus.

Cairnes, Prof. Elliot.
Cairns, 1st Earl.
Cairo.

Caisson Disease.
Caithness.
Calabar Bean.
Calcium.
Calcutta.

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME IV

BISH&RlN (the anc. Ichthyophagi), a nomad tribe of African
" Arabs," of Hamitic origin, dwelling in the eastern part of the
Nubian desert. In the middle ages they were known as Beja
{q.v.), and they are the most characteristic of the Nubian
" Arabs." With the Ababda and Hadendoa they represent the
Blemmyes of classical writers. Linguistically and geographically
the Bisharln form a connecting link between the Hamitic popula-
tions and the Egyptians. Nominally they are Mahommedans.
They, however, preserve some non-Islamic religious practices,
and exhibit traces of animal-worship in their rule of never
killing the serpent or the partridge, which are regarded as
sacred.

BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855), English musical
composer, was born in London on the 18th of November 1786.
He received his artistic training from Francisco Bianchi, and in
1804 wrote the music to a piece called Angelina, which was
performed at Margate. His next composition was the music to
the ballet of Tamerlan et Bajazet, produced in 1806 at the King's
theatre. This proved successful, and was followed within two
years by several others, of which Caractacus, a pantomimic
ballet, written for Drury Lane, may be named. In 1809 his first
opera, The Circassian's Bride, was produced at Drury Lane;
but unfortunately the theatre was burned down after one per-
formance, and the score of the work perished in the flames. His
next work of importance, the opera of The Maniac, written for
the Lyceum in 1810, established his reputation, and probably
secured for him an appointment for three years as composer for
Covent Garden theatre. The numerous works — operas, burlettas,
cantatas, incidental music to Shakespeare's plays, &c. — which
he composed while in this position, are in great part forgotten.
The most successful were — The Virgin of the Sun (181 2), The
Miller and his Men (1813), Guy Mannering and The Slave (1816),
Maid Marian and Clari, introducing the well-known air of
" Home, Sweet Home " (1822). In 1825 Bishop was induced
by Elliston to transfer his services from Covent Garden to the
rival house in Drury Lane, for which he wrote with unusual care
the opera of Aladdin, intended to compete with Weber's Oberon,
commissioned by the other house. The result was a failure, and
with Aladdin Bishop's career as an operatic composer may be
said to close. On the formation of the Philharmonic Society
(1813) Bishop was appointed one of the directors, and he took
his turn as conductor of its concerts during the period when that
office was held by different musicians in rotation. In 1 830 he was
appointed musical director at Vauxhall; and it was in the course
of this engagement that he wrote the popular song " My Pretty
Jane." His sacred cantata, The Seventh Day, was written for the
Philharmonic Society and performed in 1833. In 1839 he was
made bachelor in music at Oxford. In 1841 he was appointed
to the Reid chair of music in the university of Edinburgh, but

IV. 1

he resigned the office in 1843. He was knighted in 1842, being the
first musician who ever received that honour. In 1848 he suc-
ceeded Dr Crotch in the chair of music at Oxford. The music
for the ode on the occasion of the installation of Lord Derby as
chancellor of the university (1853) proved to be his last work.
He died on the 30th of April 1855 in impoverished circumstances,
though few composers ever made more by their labours. Bishop
was twice married: to Miss Lyon and Miss Anne Riviere. Both
he and his wives were singers. His name lives in connexion with
his numerous glees, songs and smaller compositions. His
melodies are clear, flowing, appropriate and often charming; and
his harmony is always pure, simple and sweet.

BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904), English traveller and author,
daughter of the Rev. Edward Bird, rector of Tattenhall, Cheshire,
was born in Yorkshire on the 15th of October 1832. Isabella
Bird began to travel when she was twenty-two. Her first book,
The Englishwoman in A merica (1856), consisted of her correspond-
ence during a visit to Canada undertaken for her health. She
visited the Rocky Mountains, the South Pacific, Australia and«
New Zealand, producing some brightly written books of travel.
But her reputation was made by the records of her extensive
travels in Asia: Unbeaten Tracks in Japan (2 vols., 1880),
Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan (2 vols., 1891), Among the
Tibetans (1894), Korea and her Neighbours (2 vols., 1898), The
Yangtze Valley and Beyond (1899), Chinese Pictures (1900).
She married in 1881 Dr John Bishop, an Edinburgh physician,
and was left a widow in 1886. In 1892 she became the first lady
fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1901 she rode a
thousand miles in Morocco and the Atlas Mountains. She died in
Edinburgh on the 7th of October 1904.

See Anna M. Stoddart, The Life of Isabella Bird (1906).

BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. kirlaKcnros,
" overlooker " or " overseer "), in certain branches of the
Christian Church, an ecclesiastic consecrated or set apart to
perform certain spiritual functions, and to exercise oversight over
the lower clergy (priests or presbyters, deacons, &c). In the
Catholic Church bishops take rank at the head of the sacerdotal
hierarchy, and have certain spiritual powers peculiar to their
office, but opinion has long been divided as to whether they
constitute a separate order or form merely a higher degree of
the order of priests (ordo sacerdotium) .

In the Roman Catholic Church the bishop belongs to the
highest order of the hierarchy, and in this respect is the peer even
of the pope, who addresses him as "venerable brother."
By the decree of the council of Trent he must be thirty catholic.
years of age, of legitimate birth, and of approved
learning and virtue. The method of his selection varies
in different countries. In France, under the Concordat, the
sovereign — and under the republic the president — had the right

BISHOP

of nomination. The same is true of Austria (except four sees),
Bavaria, Spain and Portugal. In some countries the bishop
is elected by the cathedral chapter (as in Wurttemberg), or by the
bishops of the provinces (as in Ireland). In others, as in Great
Britain, the United States of America and Belgium, the pope
selects one out of a list submitted by the chapter. In all cases
the nomination or election is subject to confirmation by the
Holy See. Before this is granted the candidate is submitted to
a double examination as to his fitness, first by a papal delegate
at his place of residence {processus informativus in parjibus
electi), and afterwards by the Roman Congregation of Cardinals
assigned for this purpose {processus electionis definitivus in curia).
In the event of both processes proving satisfactory, the bishop-
elect is confirmed, preconized, and so far promoted that he is
allowed to exercise the rights of jurisdiction in his see. He can-
not, however, exercise the functions proper to the episcopal order
{potestas ordinis) until his consecration, which ordinarily takes
place within three months of his confirmation. The bishop is con-
secrated, after taking the oath of fidelity to the Holy See,
and subscribing the profession of faith, by a bishop appointed
by the pope for the purpose, assisted by at least two other bishops
or prelates, the main features of the act being the laying on of
hands, the anointing with oil, and the delivery of the pastoral staff
and other symbols of the office. After consecration the new bishop
is solemnly enthroned and blesses the assembled congregation.

The potestas ordinis of the bishop is not peculiar to the Roman
Church, and, in general, is claimed by all bishops, whether
Oriental or Anglican, belonging to churches which have retained
the Catholic tradition in this respect. Besides the full functions
of the presbyterate, or priesthood, bishops have the sole right
(i) to confer holy orders, (2) to administer confirmation, (3) to
prepare the holy oil, or chrism, (4) to consecrate sacred places
or utensils (churches, churchyards, altars, &c), (5) to give the
benediction to abbots and abbesses, (6) to anoint kings. In
the matter of their rights of jurisdiction, however, Roman
Catholic bishops differ from others in their peculiar responsibility
to the Holy See. Some of their powers of legislation and admini-
stration they possess motu proprio in virtue of their position as
diocesan bishops, others they enjoy under special faculties
granted by the Holy See; but all bishops are bound, by an oath
taken at the time of their consecration, to go to Rome at fixed
'intervals {visitare sacra lintina apostolorum) to report in person,
and in writing, on the state of their dioceses.

The Roman bishop ranks immediately after the cardinals;
he is styled reverendissimus, sanctissimus or bealissimus. In
English the style is " Right Reverend "; the bishop being
addressed as " my lord bishop."

The insignia {pontificalia or pontificals) of the Roman Catholic
bishop are (1) a ring with a jewel, symbolizing fidelity to the
church, (2) the pastoral staff, (3) the pectoral cross, (4) the
vestments, consisting of the caligae, stockings and sandals, the
tunicle, and purple gloves, (5) the mitre, symbol of the royal
priesthood, (6) the throne {cathedra), surmounted by a baldachin
or canopy, on the gospel side of the choir in the cathedral church.

The spiritual function and character of the Anglican bishops,
allowing for the doctrinal changes effected at the Reformation,
are similar to those of the Roman. They alone can
' administer the rite of confirmation, ordain priests
and deacons, and exercise a certain dispensing power. In the
established Church of England the appointment of bishops
is vested effectively in the crown, though the old form of election
by the cathedral chapter is retained. They must be learned
presbyters at least thirty years of age, born in lawful wedlock,
and of good life and behaviour. The mode of appointment is
regulated by 25 Henry VIII. c. 20, re-enacted in 1 Elizabeth
c. 1 (Act of Supremacy 1558). On a vacancy occurring, the
dean and chapter notify the king thereof in chancery, and pray
leave to make election. A licence under the Great Seal to proceed
to the election of a bishop, known as the conge d'eslire, together
with a letter missive containing the name of the king's nominee,
is thereupon sent to the dean and chapter, who are bound under
the penalties of Praemunire to proceed within twelve days to

the election of the person named in it. In the event of their
refusing obedience or neglecting to elect, the bishop may be
appointed by letters patent under the Great Seal without the
form of election. Upon the election being reported to the crown,
a mandate issues from the crown to the archbishop and metro-
politan, requesting him and commanding him to confirm the
election, and to invest and consecrate the bishop-elect. There-
upon the archbishop issues a commission to his vicar-general to
examine formally the process of the election of the bishop, and
to supply by his authority all defects in matters of form, and
to administer to the bishop-elect the oaths of allegiance, of
supremacy and of canonical obedience (see Confirmation op
Bishops). In the disestablished and daughter Churches the
election is by the synod of the Church, as in Ireland, or by a
diocesan convention, as in the United States of America.

In the Church of England the potestas ordinis is conferred by
consecration. This is usually carried out by an archbishop,
who is assisted by two or more bishops. The essential " form "
of the consecration is in the simultaneous " laying on of hands "
by the consecrating prelates. After this the new bishop, who
has so far been vested only in a rochet, retires and puts on the
rest of the episcopal habit, viz. the chimere. After consecration
the bishop is competent to exercise all the spiritual functions of
his office; but a bishopric in the Established Church, being a
barony, is under the guardianship of the crown during a vacancy,
and has to be conferred afresh on each new holder. A bishop,
then, cannot enter into the enjoyment of the temporalities of his
see, including his rights of presentation to benefices, before doing
homage to the king. This is done in the ancient feudal form,
surviving elsewhere only in the conferring of the M.A. degree at
Cambridge. The bishop kneels before the king, places his hands
between his, and recites an oath of temporal allegiance; he
then kisses hands.

Besides the functions exercised in virtue of their order, bishops
are also empowered by law to exercise a certain jurisdiction over
all consecrated places and over all ordained persons. This
jurisdiction they exercise for the most part through their con-
sistorial courts, or through commissioners appointed under the
Church Discipline Act of 1840. By the Clergy Discipline Act
of 1892 it was decreed that the trial of clerks accused of unfitness
to exercise the cure of souls should be before the consistory court
with five assessors. Under the Public Worship Regulation Act
of 1874, which gave to churchwardens and aggrieved parishioners
the right to institute proceedings against the clergy for breaches
of the law in the conduct of divine service, a discretionary right
was reserved to the bishop to stay proceedings.

The bishops also exercise a certain jurisdiction over marriages,
inasmuch as they have by the canons of the Church of England
a power of dispensing with the proclamation of banns before
marriage. These dispensations are termed marriage licences,
and their legal validity is recognised by the Marriage Act of 1823.
The bishops had formerly jurisdiction over all questions touching
the validity of marriages and the status of married persons, but
this jurisdiction has been transferred from the consistorial
courts of the bishops to a court of the crown by the Matri-
monial Causes Act of 1857, They have in a similar manner
been relieved of their jurisdiction in testamentary matters, and
in matters of defamation and of brawling in churches; and the
only jurisdiction which they continue to exercise over the
general laity is with regard to their use of the churches and
churchyards. The churchwardens, who are representative
officers of the parishes, are also executive officers of the bishops
in all matters touching the decency and order of the churches
and of the churchyards, and they are responsible to the bishops
for the due discharge of their duties; but the abolition of church
rates has relieved the churchwardens of the most onerous part
of their duties, which was connected with the stewardship of the
church funds of their parishes.

The bishops are still authorized by law to dedicate and set
apart buildings for the solemnization of divine service, and
grounds for the performance of burials, according to the rites
and ceremonies of the Church of England; and such buildings

BISHOP

and grounds, after they have been duly consecrated according
to law, cannot be diverted to any secular purpose except under
the authority of an act of parliament.

The bishops of England have also jurisdiction to examine
clerks who may be presented to benefices within their respective
dioceses, and they are bound in each case by the 95th canon of
1604 to inquire and inform themselves of the sufficiency of each
clerk within twenty-eight days, after which time, if they have
not rejected him as insufficiently qualified, they are bound to
institute him, or to license him, as the case may be; to the
benefice, and thereupon to send their mandate to the archdeacon
to induct him into the temporalities of the benefice. Where
the bishop himself is patron of a benefice within his own diocese
he is empowered to collate a clerk to it, — in other words, to confer
it on the clerk without the latter being presented to him. Where
the clerk himself is patron of the living, the bishop may institute
him on his own petition. (See Benefice.)

As spiritual peers, bishops of the Church of England have
(subject to the limitations stated below) seats in the House of
Lords, though whether as barons or in their spiritual character
has been a matter of dispute. The latter, however, would seem
to be the case, since a bishop was entitled to his writ of summons
after confirmation and before doing homage for his barony.
Doubts having been raised whether a bishop of the Church of
England, being a lord of parliament, could resign his seat in the
Upper House, although several precedents to that effect are on
record, a statute of the realm, which was confined to the case
of the bishops of London and Durham, was passed in 1856,
declaring that on the resignation of their sees being accepted by
their respective metropolitans, those bishops should cease to sit
as lords of parliament, and their sees should be filled up in the
manner provided by law in the case of the avoidance of a
bishopric. In 1869 the Bishops' Resignation Act was passed.
It provided that, on any bishop desiring to retire on account of
age or incapacity, the sovereign should be empowered to declare
the see void by an order in council, the retiring bishop or arch-
bishop to be secured the use of the episcopal residence for life
and a pension of one-third of the revenues of the see, or £2000,
whichever sum should prove the larger. Other sections defined
the proceedings for proving, in case of need, the incapacity of a
bishop, provided for the appointment of coadjutors and defined
their status (Phillimore i. 82).

In view of the necessity for increasing the episcopate in the
19th century and the objection to the consequent increase of
the spiritual peers in the Upper House, it was finally enacted by
the Bishoprics Act of 1878 that only the archbishops and the
bishops of London, Winchester and Durham should be always
entitled to writs summoning them to the House of Lords. The
rest of the twenty-five seats are filled up, as a vacancy occurs,
according to seniority of consecration.

■ Bishops of the Church of England rank in order of precedency
immediately above barons. They may marry, but their wives as
such enjoy no title or precedence. Bishops are addressed as
"■ Right Reverend " and have legally the style of " Lord,"
which, as in the case of Roman Catholic bishops in England,
is extended to all, whether suffragans or holders of colonial
bishoprics, by courtesy.

The insignia of the Anglican bishop are the rochet and the
chimere, and the episcopal throne on the gospel side of the
chancel of the cathedral church. The use of the mitre, pastoral
staff and pectoral cross, which had fallen into complete disuse
by the end of the 18th century, has been now very commonly,
though not universally, revived; and, in some cases, the inter-
pretation put upon the " Ornaments rubric " by the modern
High Church school has led to a more complete revival of the
pre-Reformation vestments.

In the Orthodox Church of the East and the various com-
munions springing from it, the potestas ordinis of the bishop is
the same as in the Western Church. Among his
Eastern* qualifications the most peculiar is that he must be
unmarried, which, since the secular priests are com-
pelled to marry, entails his belonging to the " black clergy " or

monks. The insignia of an oriental bishop, with considerable
t variation in form, are essentially the same as those of the
Catholic West.

Besides bishops presiding over definite sees, there have been
from time immemorial in the Christian Church bishops holding
their jurisdiction in subordination to the bishop of the
diocese. (1) The oldest of these were the chorepiscopi Sab "
(rrjs x&pas kiriffKoroi.), i.e. country bishops, who were bishops.
delegated by the bishops of the cities in the early
church to exercise jurisdiction in the remote towns and villages
as these were converted from paganism. Their functions varied
in different times and places, and by some it has been held that
they were originally only presbyters. In any case, this class of
bishops, which had been greatly curtailed in the East in A.D. 343
by the council of Laodicea, was practically extinct everywhere
by the 10th century. It survived longest in Ireland, where in
1152 a synod, presided over by the papal legate, decreed that,
after the death of the existing holders of the office, no more
should be consecrated. Their place was taken by arch-presbyterr
and rural deans. (2) The Episcopi regionarii, or gentium, were
simply missionary bishops without definite sees. Such were,
at the outset, Boniface, the apostle of Germany, and Willibrord,
the apostle of the Frisians. (3) Bishops in partibus infidelium
were originally those who had been expelled from their sees by
the pagans, and, while retaining their titles, were appointed to
assist diocesan bishops in their work. In later times the custom
arose of consecrating bishops for this purpose, or merely as an
honorary distinction, with a title derived from some place once
included within, but now beyond the bounds of Christendom.
(4) Coadjutor bishops are such as are appointed to assist the
bishop of the diocese when incapacitated by infirmity or by other
causes from fulfilling his functions alone. Coadjutors in the early
church were appointed with a view to their succeeding to the
see; but this, though common in practice, is no longer the rule.
In the Church of England the appointment and rights of co-
adjutor bishops were regulated by the Bishops' Resignation Act
of 1869. . Under this act the coadjutor bishop has the right of
succession to the see, or in the case of the archiepiscopal sees
and those of London, Winchester and Durham, to the "see
vacated by the bishop, translated from another diocese to fill
the vacancy. (5) Suffragan bishops {episcopi suffraganei or
auxiliares) are those appointed to assist diocesan bishops in their
pontifical functions when hindered by infirmity, public affairs
or other causes. In the Roman Church the appointment of the
suffragan rests with, the pope, on the petition of the bishop,
who must £>rove that such is the custom of the see, name a suitable
priest and guarantee his maintenance. The suffragan is given a
title in partibus, but never that of archbishop, and the same
title is never given to two suffragans in succession. In the
Church of England the status of suffragan bishops was regulated
by the Act 26 Henry VIII. c. 14. Under this statute, which,
after long remaining inoperative, was amended and again put
into force by the Suffragans' Nomination Act of 1888, every,
archbishop and bishop, being disposed to have a suffragan to
assist him, may name two honest and discreet spiritual persons
for the crown to give to one of them the title, name, style and
dignity of a bishop of any one of twenty-six sees enumerated
in the statute, as the crown may think convenient. The crown,
having made choice of one of such persons, is empowered to
present him by letters patent under the great seal to the metro-
politan, requiring him to consecrate him to the same name,
title, style and dignity of a bishop; and the person so conse-
crated is thereupon entitled to exercise, under a commission
from the bishop who has nominated him, such authority and
jurisdiction, within the diocese of such bishop, as shall be given
to him by the commission, and no other.

The title of bishop survived the Reformation in certain of the
Lutheran churches of the continent, in Denmark, Norway,
Finland, Sweden and Transylvania; it was tern-
porarily restored in Prussia in 1701, for the coronation churches.
of King Frederick I., again between 1816 and 1840 by
Frederick William III., and in Nassau in 181 8. In these latter

BISHOP AUCKLAND— BISKRA

cases, however, the title bishop is, equivalent to that of " super-
intendent," the form most generally employed. The Lutheran
bishops, as a rule, do not possess or claim unbroken "apostolic
succession"; those of Finland and Sweden are, however, an
exception. The Lutheran bishops of Transylvania sit, with the
Roman and Orthodox bishops, in the Hungarian Upper House.
In some cases the secularization of. episcopal principalities
at the Reformation led to the survival of the title of bishop as a
purely secular distinction. Thus the see of Osnabruck (Osna-
burgh) was occupied, from the peace of Westphalia to 1802,
alternately by a Catholic and a Protestant prince. From 1762
to 1802 it was held by Frederick, duke of York, the last prince-
bishop. Similarly, the bishopric of Schwerin survived as a
Protestant prince-bishopric until 1648, when it was finally
secularized and annexed to Mecklenburg; and'the See of Liibeck
was held by Protestant " bishops " from 1530 till its annexation
to Oldenburg in 1803. 1

In other Protestant communities, e.g. the Moravians, the
Methodist Episcopal Church and the Mormons, the office and
title of bishop have survived, or been created. Their functions
and status will be found described in the accounts of the several
churches.

See Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, s. "Bischof" and "Weihen" ;
Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, vol. ii. ; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie,
s. " Bischof " (the author rather arbitrarily classes Anglican with
Lutheran bishops as not bishops in any proper sense at all) ;
Phillimore's Ecclesiastical Law, the articles Order, Holy; Vest-
ments; Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction; Episcopacy. (W. A. P.)

BISHOP AUCKLAND, a market town in the Bishop Auckland
parliamentary division of Durham, England, 11 m. S.S.W. of the
city of Durham, the junction of several branches of the North
Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,969. It is
beautifully situated on an eminence near the confluence of the
Wear and the Gaunless. The parish church is 1 m. distant, at
Auckland St Andrews, a fine cruciform structure, formerly
collegiate, in style mainly Early English, but with earlier portions.
The palace of the bishops of Durham, which stands at the north-
east end of the town, is a spacious and splendid, though irregular
pile v The site of the palace was first chosen by Bishop Anthony
Beck, in the time of Edward I. The present building covers
about 5 acres, and is surrounded by a park of 800 acres. On the
Wear i|m. above Bishop Auckland there is a small and very
ancient church at Escomb, massively built and tapering from the
bottom upward. It is believed to date from the 7th century,
and some of the stones are evidently from a Roman building,
one bearing an inscription. These, no doubt, came from Bin-
chester, a short distance up stream, where remains of a Roman
fort ( Vinovia) are traceable. It guarded the great Roman north
road from York to Hadrian's wall. The industrial population
of Bishop Auckland is principally employed in the neighbouring
collieries and iron works.

BISHOP'S CASTLE, a market town and municipal borough
in the southern parliamentary division of Shropshire, England;
the terminus of the Bishop's Castle light railway from Craven
Arms. Pop. (1901) 1378. It is pleasantly situated in a hilly
district to the east of Clun Forest, climbing the flank and occupy-
ing the summit of an eminence. Of the castle of the bishops
of Hereford, which gave the town its name, there are only the
slightest fragments remaining. The town has some agricultural
trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors.
Area, 1867 acres.

Bishop's Castle was included in the manor of Lydbury; which
belonged to the church of Hereford before the Conquest., The castle,
at first called Lydbury Castle, was built by one of the bishops of
Hereford between 1085 and 1 154, to protect his manor from the
Welsh, and the town which sprang up round thecastle walls acquired
the name of Bishop's Castle in the 13th century. In 1292 the bishop
claimed to have a market every Friday, a fair on the eve, day and

1 The title prince-bishop, attached in Austria to the sees of Laibach,
Seckau, Gurk, Brixen, Trent and Lavant, and in Prussia to that of
Breslau, no longer implies any secular jurisdiction, but is merely a
title of honour recognized by the state, owing either to the importance
of the sees pr for reasons purely historical.

morrow qf the Decollation of St John f and assize of bread and aje
in Bishop's Castle, which his predecessors had held from time
: immemorial. Ten years later he received a grant from Richard II.
of a market every Wednesday and a fair on the 2nd of November
and two days following. Although the town was evidently a borough
by the 13th century, since the burgesses are mentioned as early as
1292, it has no charter earlier than the incorporation charter granted
by Queen Elizabeth in 1572. This was confirmed by James I. in
1617 and by James II. in 1688. In 1584 Bishop's Castle returned
two members to parliament, and was represented until 1832, when
it was disfranchised. -

BISHOP STORTFORD, a market town in the Hertford parlia-
mentary division of Hertfordshire, England; 305 m. N.N.E.
from London by the Cambridge line of the Great Eastern railway.
Pop. of urban district (190 1) 7143. It lies on the river Stort,
close to the county boundary with Essex, and has water-com-
munication with London through the Lea and Stort Navigation.
The church of St Michael, standing high above the valley, is a
fine embattled Perpendicular building with western tower and
spire. The high school, > formerly the grammar school, was
founded : in the time of Elizabeth. Here were educated Sir
Henry Chauncy, an early historian of Hertfordshire (d. 17 19),
and Cecil Rhodes, who was born at Bishop Stortford in 1853.
There are a Nonconformist grammar school, a diocesan training
college for mistresses* and other educational establishments.
The industries include brewing and malting, coach-building,
lime-burning and founding, and there are important horse and
cattle markets.

Before the Conquest the manor of Bishop Stortford is said to have
'belonged to Eddeva the Fair, wife of Harold, who sold it to the bishop
of London, from whom it was taken by William the Conqueror.
William restored it after a few years, and with it gave the bishop a
small castle called Waytemore, of which there are scanty remains.
The dungeon of this castle, called " Bishop's Hole " or " Bishop's
Prison," was used as an ecclesiastical prison' until the 16th century.
The town now possesses no early incorporation charters, and although
both Chauncy and Salmon in their histories of Hertfordshire state
that it was created a borough by charter of King John in 1206, the
charter cannot now be found. The first mention of Bishop Stortford
as a borough occurs in 1311, in which year the burgesses returned
two members to parliament. The town: was represented from that
date until 1332, and again in 1335-1336, but the privilege was then
allowed to lapse and has never been revived.

BISKRA, a town of Algeria, in the arrondissement of Batna>
department of Constantine, 150 m. S.W. of the city of Constantine
and connected with it and with Philippeville by rail. It lies in
the Sahara 360 ft. above the sea, on the right bank of the Wad
Biskra, a river which, often nearly dry for many months in the
year, becomes a mighty torrent after one or two days' rain in
winter. The name Biskra applies to a union of five or six
villages of the usual Saharan type, scattered through an oasis
3 m. in length by less than 1 m. broad, and separated by huge
gardens full of palm and olive trees. The houses are built of
hardened mud, with doors and roof of palm wood. The foreign
settlement is on the .north of the oasis; it consists of a broad
main street, the rue Berthe (from which a few side streets branch
at right angles), lined with European houses, the whole in the
style of a typical French winter resort, a beautiful public garden,
with the church in the centre, an arcade, a pretentious mairie
in pseudo-Moorish style with entrance guarded by terra-cotta
lions, some good shops, a number of excellent hotels and cafes,
a casino, clubs, and, near by, a street of dancing and singing
girls of the tribe qf Walad-Nail. East of the public garden is
Fort St Germain, named after an officer killed in the insurrection
of the Zaatcha in 1849; it is capable of resisting any attack of
the Arabs, and extensive enough to shelter the whole of the
civil population, who took refuge therein during the rebellion of
1871. It contains barracks, hospital and government offices.
To the south-east lies the Villa Landon with magnificent gardens
filled with tropical plants. The population (1906) of the chief
settlement was 4218, of the whole oasis 10,413.

From November to April the climate of Biskra is delightful.
Nowhere in Algeria can be found- more genial temperature or
clearer skies, and while in summer the thermometer often
registers 110° F. in the shade, and 90 at night, the pure dryness
of the air in this practically rainless region makes the heat

BISLEY— -BISMARCK

endurable. The only drawback to the climate is the prevalence
of high cold winds in winter. These winds cause temperatures
as low as 36 , but the mean reading, on an average of ten years,

is 73°-

In the oasis are some 200,000 fruit trees, of which about
150,000 are date-palms, the rest being olives, pomegranates and
apricots. In the centre of the oasis is the old kasbah or citadel.

In 1844 the due d'Aumale occupied this fort, and here, on the
night of the 12th of May of that year, the 68 men who formed
the French garrison were, with one exception, massacred by
Arabs. In the fort are a few fragments of Roman work — all that
remains of the Roman post Ad Piscinam.

Biskra is the capital of the Ziban (plural of Zab), a race of
mixed Berber and Arab origin, whose villages extend from the
southern slopes of the Aures to the Shat Melrir. These villages,
built in oases dotted over the desert, nestle in groves of date-
palms and fruit trees and waving fields of barley. The most
interesting village is that of Sidi Okba, 12 m. south-east of Biskra.
It is built of houses of one story made of sun-dried bricks. The
mosque is square, with a flat roof supported on clay columns, and
crowned by a minaret. In the north-west corner of the mosque
is the tomb of Sidi Okba, the leader of the Arabs who. in the 1st
century of the Hegira conquered Africa for Islam from Egypt
to Tangier. Sidi Okba was killed by the Berbers near this place
in a.d. 682. On his tomb is the inscription in Cufic characters,
" This is the tomb of Okba, son of Nafi. May God have mercy
upon him." No older Arabic inscription is known to exist in
Africa.

BISLEY, a village of Surrey, England, 3J m. N.W. of Woking.
The ranges of the National Rifle Association were transferred
from Wimbledon here in 1890. (See Rifle.)

BISMARCK, OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD VON, Prince,
duke of Lauenburg (1815-1898), German statesman, was born
on the 1st of April 1815, at the manor-house of Schonhausen,
his father's seat in the mark of Brandenburg. The family has,
since the 14th century, belonged to the landed gentry, and many
members had held high office in the kingdom of Prussia. His
father (d. 1845), of whom he always spoke with much affection,
was a quiet, unassuming man, who retired from the army in
early life with the rank of captain of cavalry {Rittmeister) . His
mother, a daughter of Mencken, cabinet secretary to the king,
was a woman of strong character and ability, who had been
brought up at Berlin under the "Aufklarung." Her ambition
was centred in her sons, but Bismarck in his recollections 6f his
childhood missed the influences of maternal tenderness. There
were several children of the marriage, which took place in 1806,
but all died in childhood except Bernhard (1810-1893), Otto,
and one sister, Malvina (b. 1827), who married in 1845 Oscar
von Arnim. Young Bismarck was educated in BerHn, first at a
private school, then at the gymnasium of the Graue Kloster
(Grey Friars). At the age of seventeen he went to the university
of Gottingen, where he spent a little over a year; he joined the
corps of the Hannoverana and took a leading part in the social
life of the students. He completed his studies at Berlin, and in
1835 passed the examinations which admitted him to the public
service. He was intended for the diplomatic service, but spent
some months at ■ Aix-la-Chapelle in administrative work, and
then was transferred to Potsdam and the judicial side. He soon
retired from the public service; he conceived a great distaste
for it, and had shown himself defective in discipline and regu-
larity. In 1839, after his mother's death, he undertook, with
his brother, the management of the family estates in Pomerania;
at this time most of the estate attached to Schonhausen had
to be sold. In 1844, after the marriage of his sister, he went to
live with his father at Schonhausen. He and his brother took
an active part in local affairs, and in 1846 he was appointed
Deichhauptmann, an office in which he was responsible for the
care of the dykes by which the country, in the neighbourhood
of the Elbe, was preserved from inundation. During these years
he travelled in England, France and Switzerland. The influence
of his mother, and his own wide reading and critical character,
made him at one time inclined to hold liberal opinions on govern-

ment and religion, but he was strongly affected by the religious
revival of the early years, of the reign of Frederick William IV.;
his opinions underwent a great change, and under the influence
of the neighbouring country gentlemen he acquired those strong
principles in favour of monarchical governmentas the expression
of the Christian state, of which he was to become the most cele-
brated exponent. His religious convictions were strengthened
by his marriage to Johanna von Puttkamer, which took place
in 1847. ■■•■■.

In the same year he entered public life, being chosen as
substitute for the representative of the lower nobility of his
district in the estates-general, which were in that
year summoned to Berlin. He took his seat with ParII * m
the extreme right, and distinguished himself by the CTreer.^
vigour and originality with which he defended the
rights of the king and the Christian monarchy against the
Liberals. When the revolution broke out in the following year
he offered to bring the peasants of Schonhausen to Berlin in
order to : defend the king against the revolutionary party, and in
the last meeting of the estates voted in a minority of two against
the address thanking the king for granting a constitution. He
did not sit in any of the assemblies summoned during the revolu-
tionary year, but took a very active part in the formation of a
union of the Conservative party, and was one of the founders of
the Kreuzzeihmg, which has sinCe then been the organ of the
Monarchical party in.Prussia. In the new parliament which was
elected at the beginning of 1849, he sat for Brandenburg, and
was one of the most frequent and most incisive speakers of what
was called the Junker party. He took a prominent part in the
discussions on the new Prussian constitution, always defending
the power of the king. His speeches of this period show great
debating skill, combined with strong originality and imagination.
His constant theme was, that the party disputes were a struggle
for power between the forces of revolution, which derived their
strength from the fighters on the barricades, and the Christian
monarchy, and that between these opposed principles no com-
promise was possible. He took also a considerable part in the
debates on the foreign policy of the Prussian government;
he defended the government for not accepting the Frankfort
constitution, and opposed the policy of Radowitz, on the ground
that the Prussian king would be subjected to the control of a
non-Prussian parliament. The only thing, he said, that had
come out of the revolutionary year unharmed, and had saved
Prussia from dissolution and Germany from anarchy, was the
Prussian army and the Prussian civil service; and in the debates
on foreign policy he opposed the numerous plans for bringing
about the union of Germany, by subjecting the crown and
Prussia to a common German parliament. He had a seat in the
parliament of Erfurt, but only went there in order to oppose the
constitution which the parliament had framed. He foresaw
that the policy of the government would lead it into a position
when it would have to fight against Austria on behalf of a con-
stitution by which Prussia itself would be dissolved, and he was,
therefore, one of the few prominent politicians who defended
the complete change of front which followed the surrender of
Olmiitz.

It was probably his speeches on German policy which induced
the king to appoint him Prussian representative at the restored
diet of Frankfort in 185 1. The appointment was a
bold one, as he was entirely without diplomatic ex- C ^J1T
perience, but he justified the confidence placed in him.
During the eight years he spent at Frankfort he acquired an
unrivalled knowledge of German politics. He was often used
for important missions, as in 1852, when he was sent to Vienna.
He was entrusted with the negotiations by which the duke of
Augustenburg was persuaded to assent to the arrangements by
which he resigned his claims to Schleswig and Holstein. The
period he spent at Frankfort, however, was of most importance
because of the change it brought about in his own political
opinions. When he went to Frankfort he was still under the
influence of the extreme Prussian Conservatives, men like the
Gerlachs, who regarded the maintenance of the principle of the

BISMARCK

Christian monarchy against the revolution as the chief duty of
the Prussian government. He was prepared on this ground for
a close alliance with Austria. He found, however*, a deliberate
intention on the part of Austria to humble Prussia, and to
degrade her from the position of an equal power, and also great
jealousy of Prussia among the smaller German princes, many
of whom owed their thrones to the Prussian soldiers, who, as in
Saxony and Baden, had crushed the insurgents. He therefore
came to the conclusion that if Prussia was to regain the position
she had lost she must be prepared for the opposition of Austria,
and must strengthen herself by alliances with other powers.
The solidarity of Conservative interests appeared to him now a
dangerous fiction. At the time of the Crimean War he advocated
alliance with Russia, and it was to a great extent owing to
his advice that Prussia did not join the western powers. After-
wards he urged a good understanding with Napoleon, but his
advice was met by the insuperable objection of King Frederick
William IV. to any alliance with a ruler of revolutionary origin.

The change of ministry which followed the establishment
of a regency in 1857 made it desirable to appoint a new envoy
at Frankfort, and in 1858 Bismarck was appointed ambassador
at St Petersburg, where he remained for four years. During
this period he acquired some knowledge of Russian, and gained
the warm regard of the tsar, as well as of the dowager-empress,
herself a Prussian princess. During the first two years he had
little influence on the Prussian government; the Liberal minister's
distrusted his known opinions on parliamentary government,
and the monarchical feeling of the prince regent was offended
by Bismarck's avowed readiness for alliance with the Italians
and his disregard of the rights of other princes. The failure of
the ministry, and the estrangement between King William and
the Liberal party, opened to him the way to power. Roon, who
was appointed minister of war in 1861, was an old friend of his,
and through him Bismarck was thenceforward kept closely
informed of the condition of affairs in Berlin. On several
occasions the prospect of entering the ministry was open to him,
but nothing came of it, apparently because he required a free
hand in foreign affairs, and this the king was not prepared to
give him. When an acute crisis arose out of the refusal of parlia-
ment, in 1862, to vote the money required for the reorganization
of the army, which the king and Roon had carried through,
he was summoned to Berlin; but the king was still unable to
make up his mind to appoint him, although he felt that Bismarck
was the only man who had the courage and capacity for con-
ducting the struggle with parliament. He was, therefore, in
June, made ambassador at Paris as a temporary expedient.
There he had the opportunity for renewing the good under-
standing with Napoleon which had been begun in 1857. He also
paid a short visit to England, but it does not appear that this
had any political results. In September the parliament, by a
large majority, threw out the budget, and the king, having
nowhere else to turn for help, at Roon's advice summoned
Bismarck to Berlin and appointed him minister-president and
foreign minister.

Bismarck's duty as minister was to carry on the government
against the wishes of the Lower House, so as to enable the king
to complete and maintain the reorganized army. The
opposition of the House was supported by the country
and by a large party at court, including the queen and crown
prince. The indignation which his appointment caused was
intense; he was known only by the reputation which in his
early years he had won as a violent ultra-Conservative, and the
apprehensions were increased by his first speech, in which he
said that the German question could not be settled by speeches
and parliamentary decrees, but only by blood and iron. His
early fall was predicted, and it was feared that he might bring
down the monarchy with him. Standing almost alone he
succeeded in the task he had undertaken. For four years he
ruled without a budget, taking advantage of an omission in the
constitution which did not specify what was to happen in case
the crown and the two Houses could not agree on a budget. . The
conflict of the ministers and the House assumed at times the

Ministry.

form of bitter personal hostility; in 1863 the ministers refused
any longer to attend the sittings, and Bismarck challenged
Virchow, one of his strongest opponents, to a duel, which,
however, did not take place. In 1852 he had fought a duel with
pistols against Georg von Vindre, a political opponent. In June
1863, as soon as parliament had risen, Bismarck published
ordinances controlling the liberty of the press, which, though in
accordance with the letter, seemed opposed to the intentions of
the constitution, and it was on this occasion that the crown
prince, hitherto a silent opponent, publicly dissociated himself
from the policy of his father's ministers. Bismarck depended
for his position solely on the confidence of the king, and the
necessity for defending himself against the attempts to destroy
this confidence added greatly to the suspiciousness of his nature.
He was, however, really indispensable, for his resignation must
be followed by a Liberal ministry, parliamentary control over
the army, and probably the abdication of the king. Not only,
therefore, was he secure in the continuance of the king's support,
but he had also the complete control of foreign affairs. Thus
he could afford to ignore the criticism of the House, and the king
was obliged to acquiesce in the policy of a minister to whom he
owed so much.

. He soon gave to the policy of the monarchy a resolution
which had long been wanting. When the emperor of Austria
summoned a meeting of the German princes at Frank-
fort to discuss a reform of the confederation, Bismarck pottcy
insisted that the king of Prussia must not attend. He
remained away, and his absence in itself made the congress
unavailing^ There can be no doubt that from the time he
entered on office Bismarck was determined to bring to an issue
the long struggle for supremacy in Germany between the house of
Habsburg and the house of Hohenzollern. Before he was able
to complete his preparations for this, two unforeseen occurrences
completely altered the European situation, and caused the
conflict to be postponed for three years. The first was the
outbreak of rebellion in Poland. Bismarck, an inheritor of the
older Prussian traditions, and recollecting how much of the
greatness of Prussia had been gained at the expense of the Poles,
offered his help to the tsar. By this he placed himself in opposi-
tion to the universal feeling of western Europe; no act of his
life added so much to the repulsion with which at this time he
was regarded as an enemy of liberty and right. He won, however,
the gratitude of the tsar and the support of Russia, which in the
next years was to be of vital service to him. Even more serious
were the difficulties arising in Denmark. On the death of King
Frederick VII. in 1863, Prince Frederick of Augustenburg came
forward as claimant to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein,
which had hitherto been joined to the crown of Denmark. He
was strongly supported by the whole German nation and by
many of its princes. Bismarck, however, once more was obliged
to oppose the current of national feeling, which imperiously
demanded that the German duchies should be rescued from a
foreign yoke. Prussia was bound by the treaty of London of
1852, which guaranteed the integrity of the Danish monarchy;
to have disregarded this would have been to bring about a
coalition against Germany similar to that of 1851. Moreover,
he held that it would be of no advantage to Prussia to create a
new German state; if Denmark were to lose the duchies, he
desired that Prussia should acquire them, and to recognize the
Augustenburg claims would make this impossible. His resist-
ance to the national desire made him appear a traitor to his
country. To check the agitation he turned for help to Austria;
and an alliance of the two powers, so lately at variance, was
formed. He then falsified all the predictions of the opposition
by going to war with Denmark, not, as they had required, in
support of Augustenburg, but on the ground that the king of
Denmark had violated his promise not to oppress his German
subjects. Austria continued to act with Prussia, and, after the
defeat of the Danes, at the peace of Vienna the sovereignty of
the duchies was surrendered to the two allies — the first step
towards annexation by Prussia. There is no part of Bismarck's
diplomatic work which deserves such careful study as these

BISMARCK

events. Watched as he was by countless enemies at home and
airoadj) a. single: false step would have brought ruin and disgrace
on himself ; the growing national excitement would have burst
through all restraint, and again, as fifteen years before, Germany
.divided and unorganized would have had to capitulate to the
orders of foreign powers (see Schleswig-Holstein Question).
The peace of Vienna left him once more free to return to his
plder policy. ; For the next eighteen months he was occupied
, ., in preparing for war with . Austria. For this war he

Austria. was a i° ne responsible; he undertook; it deliberately
as . the only means of securing Prussian ascendancy
in, Germany. The actual cause of dispute was the disposition
of the conquered duchies, for Austria now wished to put Augus-
tenburg in as duke, a plan to which Bismarck would not assent.
In 1865 a provisional arrangement was made by the treaty of
pastein, for Bismarck was not yet ready. He would not risk a
war unless he was certain of success, and for this he required the
.alliance of Italy and French support; both he secured during
the next year. In October 1865 he visited Napoleon at Biarritz
and Paris. No formal treaty was made, but Napoleon promised
to regard favourably an extension of Prussian power in Germany;
while Bismarck led the emperor to believe that Prussia would
help him in extending the frontier of France. A treaty of
alliance with Italy was arranged in the spring of 1866; and
jijsmarck then with much difficulty overcame the reluctance
of the king to embark in a war with his old ally. The results
of: the war entirely justified his calculations. Prussia, though
opposed by all the German states except a few principalities
in the north, completely defeated all her enemies, and at the end
of a few weeks the whole of Germany lay at her feet.

The war of 1866 is more than that of 1870 the crisis of modern
-German history. It finally settled the controversy which had
begun more than a hundred years before, and left
<rf/S&& e " Prussia the dominant power in Germany. It deter-
, - mined that, the unity of Germany should be brought

about not by revolutionary means as in 1848, not as in 1849 had
been attempted by voluntary agreement of the princes, not by
Austria, but by the sword of Prussia. This was the great work
iof Bismarck's life; he had completed the programme fore-
shadowed in his early speeches, and finished the work of Frederick
■the Great.: It is also the. turning-point in Bismarck's own life.
Having secured the dominance of the crown in Prussia and of
Prussia, in Germany, he could afford to make a reconciliation
with the parties which had been his chief opponents, and turn
to them for help in building up a new Germany. The settlement
of 1866 was peculiarly his work. We must notice, first, how in
^arranging the terms of peace he opposed the king and the mili-
tary party who wished to advance on Vienna and annex part of
Austrian Silesia; with greater foresight helooked to renewing
the old friendship with Austria,- and insisted (even with the
threat of resignation) that no territory should be demanded. The
southern states he treated with equal moderation, and thereby
iwas able to arrange an offensive and defensive alliance with
therm. . On the other hand,in order to secure the complete control
of North Germany, which was his immediate object, he required
that the whole of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Nassau and the
.city of Frankfort, as well as the Elbe duchies, should be absorbed
; jn Prussia. He then formed a separate confederation of the North
German states, but did not attempt to unite the whole of Ger-
.many, partly because of the internal difficulties which this would
have produced, partly because it would have brought about a
,war with France. In the new confederation he became sole
responsible, minister, with the title Bundes-Kanzler; this position
he held till 1890, in addition to his former post of premier
minister. In 187 1 the title was altered to Reichs-Kanzler.

The reconciliation with the Prussian parliament he effected
by bringing in a. "bill of indemnity for the money which had been
spent without leave of parliament. The Radicals still continued
-their opposition, but he thereby made possible the formation
,01. a large party of moderate Liberals, who thenceforward
-supported him in his new Nationalist policy. He also, in the
! constitution for the new confederation, introduced a parliament

(Bundestag) elected by universal suffrage. This was the chief
demand of the revolutionists in 1848; it was one to which in
his early life he had been strongly opposed. His experience
at Frankfort had diminished his dislike of popular representation,
and it was probably to the advice of Lassalle that his adoption
of universal suffrage was due. He first publicly proposed it
just before the war; by carrying it out, notwithstanding the
apprehensions of many Liberal politicians, he placed the new
constitution on a firmer base than would otherwise have been
possible.

Up to 1866 he had always appeared to be an opponent of the
National party in Germany, now he became their leader. His
next task was to complete the work which was half-finished,
and it was this which brought about the second of the great wars
which he undertook.

The relations with Napoleon III. form one of the most inter-
esting but obscurest episodes in Bismarck's career. We have
seen that he did not share the common prejudice
against co-operation with France. He found Napoleon an ^" are
willing to aid Prussia as he had aided Piedmont, and France.
was ready to accept his assistance. There was this
difference, that he asked only for neutrality, not armed assist-
ance, and it is improbable that he ever intended to alienate any
German territory; he showed himself, however, on more than one
occasion, ready to discuss plans for extending French territory,
on the side of Belgium and Switzerland. Napoleon, who had
not anticipated the rapid success of Prussia, after the battle of
Koniggratz at the request of Austria came forward as mediator,
and there were a few days during which it was probable that
Prussia would have to meet a French attempt to dictate terms
of peace. Bismarck in this crisis by deferring to the emperor
in appearance avoided the danger, but he knew that he had
been deceived, and the cordial understanding was never renewed.
Immediately after .an armistice had been arranged, Benedetti, at
the orders of the French government, demanded as recompense
a large tract of German territory on the left bank of the Rhine.
This Bismarck peremptorily refused, declaring that he would
rather have war. Benedetti then made another proposal,
submitting a draft treaty by which France was to support
Prussia in adding the South German states to the new con-
federation, and Germany was to support France in the annexa-
tion of Luxemburg and Belgium. Bismarck discussed, but did
not. conclude the treaty; he kept, however, a copy of the draft
in Benedetti's handwriting, and published it in The Times in
the summer of 1870 so as to injure the credit of Napoleon in
England. The failure of the scheme made a contest with France
inevitable, at least unless the Germans were willing to forgo the
purpose of completing the work of German unity, and during
the next four years the two nations were each preparing for the
struggle, and each watching to take the other at a disadvantage.

It is necessary, then, to keep in mind the general situation
in considering Bismarck's conduct in the months immediately
preceding the war of 1870. In 1 8 6 7 there was a dispute regarding
the right to garrison Luxemburg. Bismarck then produced the
secret treaties with the southern states, an act which was, as
it were, a challenge to France by the whole of Germany.
During the next three years the Ultramontane party hoped to
bring about an anti-Prussian revolution, and Napoleon was
working for an alliance with Austria, where Beust, an old
opponent of Bismarck's, was chancellor. Bismarck was doubt-
less well informed as to the progress of the negotiations, for he
had established intimate relations with the Hungarians. The
pressure at home for completing the work of German unity was
so strong that he could with difficulty resist it, and in 1870 he
was much embarrassed by a request from Baden to be admitted
to the confederation, which he had to refuse. It is therefore not
surprising that he eagerly welcomed the opportunity of gaining
the goodwill of Spain, and supported by all the means in his
power the offer made by Marshal Prim that Prince Leopold of
Hohenzollern should be chosen king of that country. It was only
by his urgent and repeated representations that the prince was
persuaded against his will to accept. The negotiations were

BISMARCK

carried out with the greatest secrecy, but as soon as the accept-
ance was made known the French government intervened and
declared that the project was inadmissible. Bismarck was away
at Varzin, but on his instructions the Prussian foreign office in
answer to inquiries denied all knowledge or responsibility. This
was necessary, because it would have caused a bad impression
in Germany had he gone to war with France in support of the
prince's candidature. The king, by receiving Benedetti at Ems,
departed from the policy of reserve Bismarck himself adopted,
and Bismarck (who had now gone to Berlin) found himself in
a position of such difficulty that he contemplated resignation.
The French, however, by changing and extending their demands
enabled him to find a cause of war of such nature that the
whole of Germany would be united against French
telegram, aggression. France asked for a letter of apology,
and Benedetti personally requested from the king
a promise that he would never allow the candidature to be
resumed. Bismarck published the telegram in which this
information and the refusal of the king were conveyed, but by
omitting part of the telegram made it appear that the request
and refusal had both been conveyed in a more abrupt form than
had really been the case. 1 But even apart from this, the publica-
tion of the French demand, which could not be complied with,
must have brought about a war.

In the campaign of 1870-71 Bismarck accompanied the head-
quarters of the army, as he had done in 1866. He was present
at the battle of Gravelotte and at the surrender of Sedan, and
it was on the morning of the 2nd of September that he had
his famous meeting with Napoleon after the surrender of the
emperor. He accompanied the king to Paris, and spent many
months at Versailles. Here he was occupied chiefly with the
arrangements for admitting the southern states to the confedera-
tion, and the establishment of the empire. He also underwent
much anxiety lest the efforts of Thiers to bring about an inter-
ference by the neutral powers might be successful. He had to
carry on the negotiations with the French preliminary to the
surrender of Paris, and to enforce upon them the German terms
of peace.

For Bismarck's political career after 1870 we must refer to
the article Germany, for he was thenceforward entirely absorbed
After 1870 * n ^ e ^^^ °f hi s country. The foreign policy he
controlled absolutely. As chancellor he was responsible
for the whole internal policy of the empire, and his influence is to
be seen in every department of state, especially, however, in the
great change of policy after 1878. During the earlier period the
estrangement from the Conservatives, which had begun in 1866,
became very marked, and brought about a violent quarrel with
many of his old friends, which culminated in the celebrated
Arnim trial. He incurred much criticism during the struggle
with the Roman Catholic Church, and in 1873 he was shot at
and slightly wounded by a youth called Rullmann, who pro-
fessed to be an adherent of the Clerical party. Once before, in
1866, just before the outbreak of war, his life had been attempted
by a young man called Cohen, a native of Wiirttemberg, who
wished to save Germany from a fratricidal war. In 1872 he
retired from the presidency of the Prussian ministry, but returned
after a few months. On several occasions he offered to retire,
but the emperor always refused his consent, on the last time with
the word " Never." In 1877 he took a long leave of absence for
ten months. His health at this time was very bad. In 1878 he
presided over the congress of Berlin. The following years were
chiefly occupied, besides foreign affairs, which were always his
first care, with important commercial reforms, and he held at
this time also the office of Prussian minister of trade in addition
to his other posts. During this period his relations with the

1 It was not till many years later that our knowledge of these
events (which is still incomplete) was established; in 1894 the
publication of the memoirs of the king of Rumania showed, what
had hitherto been denied, that Bismarck had taken a leading part
in urging the election of the prince of Hohenzollern. It was in 1892
that the language used by Bismarck himself made it necessary for
the German government to publish the original form of the Ems
telegram.

Reichstag were often very unsatisfactory, and at ho time did he
resort so freely to prosecutions in the law-courts in order to injure
his opponents, so that the expression Bismarck-Beleidigung was
invented. He was engaged at this time in a great struggle with
the Social-Democrats, whom he tried to crush by exceptional
penal laws. The death of the emperor William in 1888 made a
serious difference in his position. He had been bound to him by
a long term of loyal service, which had been rewarded with equal
loyalty. For his relations to the emperors Frederick and William
II., and for the events connected with his dismissal from office in
March 1890, we must refer to the articles under those names.

After his retirement he resided at Friedrichsruh, near Hamburg,
a house on his Lauenburg estates. His criticisms of the govern-
ment, given sometimes in conversation, sometimes in the
columns of the Hamburger Nachrichten, caused an open breach
between him and the emperor; and the new chancellor, Count
Caprivi, in a circular despatch which was afterwards published,
warned all German envoys that no real importance must be
attached to what he said. When he visited Vienna for his son's
wedding the German ambassador, Prince Reuss, was forbidden
to take any notice of him. A reconciliation was effected in 1893.
In 1895 his eightieth birthday was celebrated with great enthusi-
asm: the Reichstag alone, owing to the opposition of the Clericals
and the Socialists, refused to vote an address. In 1891 he had
been elected a member of the Reichstag, but he never took his
seat. He died at Friedrichsruh on the 31st of July 1898. -

Bismarck was made a count in 1865; in 187 1 he received the
rank of Fiirst (prince). On his retirement the emperor created
him duke of Lauenburg, but he never used the title, which was not
inherited by his son. In 1866 he received £60,000 as his share of
the donation voted by the Reichstag for the victorious generals.
With this he purchased the estate of Varzin in Pomerania, which
henceforth he used as a country residence in preference to
Schonhausen. In 1871 the emperor presented him with a large
part of the domains of the duchy of Lauenburg. On his seventieth
birthday a large sum of money (£270,000) was raised by public
subscription, of which half was devoted to repurchasing the
estate of Schonhausen for him, and the rest was used by him to
establish a fund for the assistance of schoolmasters. As a young
man he was an officer in the Landwehr and militia, and in addi-
tion to his civil honours he was eventually raised to the rank
of general. Among the numerous orders he received we may
mention that he was the first Protestant on whom the pope be-
stowed the order of Christ; this was done after the cessation of
the Kulturkampf and the reference of the dispute with Spain
concerning the Caroline Islands to the arbitration of the pope.

Bismarck's wife died in 1894. He left one daughter and two
sons. Herbert (1840-1904), the elder, was wounded at Mars-le-
Tour, afterwards entered the foreign office, and acted as private
secretary to his father (1871-1881). In 1882 he became councillor
to the embassy at London, in 1884 was transferred to St Peters-
burg, and in 1885 became under-secretary of state for foreign
affairs. In 1884 he had been elected to the Reichstag, but had
to resign his seat when, in 1886, he was made secretary of state
for foreign affairs and Prussian minister. He conducted many
of the negotiations with Great Britain on colonial affairs. He
retired in 1890 at the same time as his father, and in 1893 was
again elected to the Reichstag. He married Countess Margarete
Hoyos in 1892, and died on the 18th of September 1904. He
left two daughters and three sons, of whom the eldest, Otto
Christian Archibald (b. 1897), succeeded to the princely title.
The second son, Wilhelm, who was president of the province of
Prussia, died in 1901. By his wife, Sybilla von Arnim-Krochlen-
dorff , he left three daughters and a son, Count Nikolaus (b. 1896).

Authorities. — The literature on Bismarck's life is very extensive,
and it is only possible to enumerate a few of the most important
books. The first place belongs to his own works. These include
his own memoirs, published after his death, under the title Gedanken
und Erinnerungen ; there is an English translation, Bismarck: his
Reflections and Reminiscences (London, 1898). They are incomplete,
but contain very valuable discussions on particular points. : The
speeches are of the greatest importance both for his character and for
political history; of the numerous editions that by Horst Kbhl, in

BISMARCK— BISMUTH

12 vols. (Stuttgart, 1892-1894), is the best; there is a cheap edition
in Reclam's Universalb'ibliothek. Bismarck was an admirable letter-
writer, and numbers of his private letters have been published;
a collected edition has been brought out by Horst Kohl. His letters
to his wife were published by Prince Herbert Bismarck (Stuttgart,
1900). A translation of a small selection of the private letters was
published in 1876 by F. Maxse. Of great value for the years 1851-
1858 is the correspondence with General L. v. Gerlach, which has
been edited by Horst Kohl (3rd ed., Berlin, 1893). A selection of the
political letters was also published under the title Politische Briefe
aus den Jahren 1 849-1 899 (2nd ed., Berlin, 1890). Of far greater
importance are the collections of despatches and state papers edited
by Herr v. Poschinger. These include four volumes entitled Preussen
im Bundestag, 1851-1859 (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1885), which contain
his despatches during the time he was at Frankfort. Next in import-
ance are two works, Bismarck als Volkswirth and Aktenstiicke zur
Wirthschaftspolitik des Fiirsten Bismarck, which are part of the collec-
tion of state papers, Akenstilcke zur Gesckichte der Wirthschaftspolitik
in Preussen. They contain full information on Bismarck's com-
mercial policy, including a number of important state papers. A
useful general collection io that by Ludwig Hahn, Bismarck, sein
politisches Leben, &c. (5 vols., Berlin, 1878-1891), which includes a
selection from letters, speeches and newspaper articles. These
collections have only been possible owing to the extreme generosity
which Bismarck showed in permitting the publication of documents;
he always professed to have no secrets. A full account of the diplo-
matic history from 1863 to 1866 is given by Sybel in Die Begrundung
des deutschen Reichs (Munich, 1889-1894), written with the help of
the Prussian archives. The last two volumes, covering 1866-1870,
are of less value, as he was not able to use the archives for this
period. Poschinger has also edited a series of works in which
anecdotes, minutes of interviews and conversations are recorded;
they are, however, of very unequal value. They are Bismarck und
die Parlamentarier, Fiirst Bismarck und der Bundesrath, Die An-
sprache des Filrsten Bismarck, Neue Tischgesprdche, and Bismarck
und die Diplomaten. Selections from these have been published in
English by Charles Lowe, The Tabletalk of Prince Bismarck, and by
Sidney Whitman, Conversations with Bismarck. By far the fullest
guide to Bismarck's life is Horst Kohl's Fiirst Bismarck, Regesten
zu einer wissenschaftlichen Biographie (Leipzig, 1891-1892), which
contains a record of Bismarck's actions on each day, with references
to and extracts from his letters and speeches. For the works of
Moritz Busch, which contain graphic pictures of his daily life, see
the article Busch. Further materials were published periodically in
the Bismarck- Jahrbuch, edited by Horst Kohl (Berlin, 1894-1896;
Stuttgart, 1897-1899). Herr v. Poschinger also brought out a
Bismarck Portfeuille. Of German biographies may be mentioned
Hans Blum, Bismarck und seine Zeit (6 vols., Munich, 1894-1895),
with a volume of appendices, &c. (1898); Heyck, Bismarck (Biele-
feld, 1898); Kreutzer, Otto von Bismarck (2 vols., Leipzig, 1900);
Klein- Hattingen, Bismarck und seine Welt, 1815-1871, Bd. i. (Berlin,
1902) ; Lenz, Geschichte Bismarcks (Leipzig, 1902) ; Penzler, Fiirst
Bismarck nach seiner Entlassung (7 vols., ib. 1897-1898); Liman,
one volume under the same title (ib. 1901). There are English
biographies by Charles Lowe, Bismarck, a Political Biography
(revised edition in 1 vol., 1895), by James Headlam (1899), and by
F.Stearns (Philadelphia, 1900). A useful bibliography of all works on
Bismarck up to 1895 is Paul Schulze and Otto Roller's Bismarck-
Literatur (Leipzig, 1896). . . (J.W. He.)

BISMARCK, the capital of North Dakota, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Burleigh county, on the E. bank of the Missouri
river, in the S. central part of the state. Pop. (1890) 2186;
(1900) 3319, of whom 746 were foreign-born; (1905) 4913; (1910)
5443. It is on the main line of the Northern Pacific, and on the
Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie railways; and steamboats
run from here to Mannhaven, Mercer county, and Fort Yates,
Morton county. The city is about 1650 ft. above sea-level. It
contains the state capitol, the state penitentiary, a U.S. land
office, a U.S. surveyor-general's office, a U.S. Indian school and a
U.S. weather station; about a mile S. of the city is Fort Lincoln,
a United States army post. Bismarck is the headquarters for
navigation of the upper Missouri river, is situated in a good
agricultural region, and has a large wholesale trade, shipping
grain, hides, furs, wool and coal. It was founded in 1873, and
was chartered as a city in 1876; from 1883 to 1889 it was the
capital of Dakota Territory, on the division of which it became
the capital of North Dakota.

BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO, the collective name of a large
number of islands lying N. and N.E. of New Guinea, between
i° and 7 S., and 146 and 153° E., belonging to Germany. The
largest island is New Pomerania, and the archipelago also
includes New Mecklenburg, New Hanover, with small attendant
islands, the Admiralty Islands and a chain of islands oS the

coast of New Guinea, the whole system lying in the form
of a great amphitheatre of oval shape. The archipelago was
named in honour of the first chancellor of the German empire,
after a German protectorate had been declared in 1884. (See
Admiralty Islands, New Mecklenburg, New Pomerania,
New Guinea.)

BISMILLAH, an Arabic exclamation, meaning " in the name
of God."

BISMUTH, a metallic chemical element; symbol Bi, atomic
weight 208-5 (0= 16). It was probably unknown to the Greeks
and Romans, but during the middle ages it became quite familiar,
notwithstanding its frequent confusion with other metals. In
1450 Basil Valentine referred to it by the name " wismut," and
characterized it as a metal; some years later Paracelsus termed
it " wissmat," and, in allusion to its brittle nature, affirmed it
to be a "bastard" or "half-metal"; Georgius Agricola used
the form " wissmuth," latinized to " bisemutum," and also the
term " plumbum cineareum." Its elementary nature was
imperfectly understood; and the impure specimens obtained
by the early chemists explain, in some measure, its confusion
with tin, lead, antimony, zinc and other metals; in 1595
Andreas Libavius confused it with antimony, and in 1675
Nicolas Lemery with zinc. These obscurities began to be finally
cleared up with the researches of Johann Heinrich Pott (1692-
1777), a pupil of Stahl, published in his Exercitationes chemicae
de Wismutho (1769), and of N. Geoffroy, son of Claude Joseph
Geoffroy, whose contribution to our knowledge of this metal
appeared in the Memoir es de I'academie fran$aise for 1753.
Torbern Olof Bergman reinvestigated its properties and deter-
mined its reactions; his account, which was published in his
Opuscula, contains the first fairly accurate description of the
metal.

Ores and Minerals. — The principal source of bismuth is
the native metal, which is occasionally met with as a mineral,
usually in reticulated and arborescent shapes or as foliated
and granular masses with a crystalline fracture. Although
bismuth is readily obtained in fine crystals by artificial
means, yet natural crystals are rare and usually indistinct:
they belong to the rhombohedral system and a cube-like
rhombohedron with interfacial angles of 92 20' is the predomi-
nating form. There is a perfect cleavage perpendicular to the
trigonal axis of the crystals: the fact that only two (opposite)
corners of the cube-like crystals can be truncated by cleavage
at once distinguishes them from true cubes. When not tarnished,
the mineral has a silver- white colour with a tinge of red, and the
lustre is metallic. Hardness 2-2J; specific gravity 9-70-9-83.
The slight variations in specific gravity are due to the presence
of small amounts of arsenic, sulphur or tellurium, or to enclosed
impurities.

Bismuth occurs in metalliferous veins traversing gneiss or
clay-slate, and is usually associated with ores of silver and cobalt.
Well-known localities are Schneeberg in Saxony and Joachims thai
in Bohemia; at the former it has been found as arborescent
groups penetrating brown jasper, which material has occasionally
been cut and polished for small ornaments. The mineral has
been found in some Cornish mines and is fairly abundant in
Bolivia (near Sorata, and at Tasna in Potosi). It is the chief
commercial source of bismuth.

The oxide, bismuth ochre, Bi 2 3 , and the sulphide, bismuth
glance or bismuthite, are also of commercial importance. The
former is found, generally mixed with iron, copper and arsenic
oxides, in Bohemia, Siberia, Cornwall, France (Meymac) and
other localities; it also occurs admixed with bismuth carbonate
and hydrate. The hydrated carbonate, bismutite, is of less
importance; it occurs in Cornwall, Bolivia, Arizona and else-
where.

Of the rarer bismuth minerals we may notice the following: —
the complex sulphides, copper bismuth glance or wittichenite,
BiCu 3 S 3 , silver bismuth glance, bismuth cobalt pyrites, bismuth
nickel pyrites or saynite, needle ore (patrinite or aikinite),
BiCuPbS 3 , emplectite, CuBiS 2 , and kobellite, BiAsPb 3 S 6 ; the
sulphotelluride tetradymite; the selenide guanajuatite, Bi 2 Se 3 ,

BISMUTH

the basic tellurate montanite, Bi 2 (OH) 4 Te04; the silicates
eulytite and agricolite, Bi^SiQi^; and the uranyl arsenate
walpurgite, Bi(U0 2 ) 3 (OH) M (As0 4 )4.

Metallurgy. — Bismuth is extracted from its ores by dry, wet,
or electro-metallurgical methods, the choice depending upon the
composition of the ore and economic conditions. The dry process
is more frequently practised, for the easy reducibility of the oxide
and sulphide, together with the low melting-point of the metal,
renders it possible to effect a ready separation of the metal from
the gangue and impurities. The extraction from ores in which the
bismuth is present in the metallic condition may be accomplished
by a simple liquation, or melting, in which the temperature isvjust
. sufficient to melt the bismuth, or by a complete fusion of the ore.
The first process never extracts all the bismuth, as much as one-
third being retained in the matte or speiss; the second is more
satisfactory, since the extraction is more complete, and also allows
the addition of reducing agents to decompose any admixed bismuth
oxide or sulphide. In the liquation process the ore is heated in
inclined cylindrical retorts, and the molten metal is tapped at the
lower end ; the residues being removed from the upper end. The
fusion process is preferably carried out in crucible furnaces; shaft
furnaces are unsatisfactory on account of the disintegrating action
of the molten bismuth on the furnace linings.

Sulphuretted ores are smelted, either with or without a preliminary
calcination, with metallic iron; calcined ores may be smelted with
carbon (coal). The reactions are strictly analogous to those which
occur in the smelting of galena (see Lead), the carbon reducing any
oxide, either present originally in the ore or produced in the calcina-
tion, and the iron combining with the sulphur of the bismuthite.
A certain amount of bismuth sulphate is always formed during the
calcination; this is subsequently reduced to the sulphide and
ultimately to the metal in the fusion. Calcination in reverberatory
furnaces and a subsequent smelting in the same type of furnace
with the addition of about_3 % of coal, lime, soda and fluorspar,
has been adopted for treating the Bolivian, ores, which generally
contain the sulphides of bismuth, copper, iron, antimony, lead and
a little silver. The lowest layer of the molten mass is principally
metallic bismuth, the succeeding layers are a bismuth copper matte,
which is subsequently worked up, and a slag. Ores containing the
oxide and carbonate are treated either by smelting with carbon or
by a wet process.

In the wet process the ores, in which the bismuth is present as
oxide or carbonate, are dissolved out with hydrochloric acid, or,
if the bismuth is to be extracted from a matte or alloy, the solvent
employed is aqua regia or strong sulphuric acid. The solution of
metallic chlorides or sulphates so obtained is precipitated by iron,
the metallic bismuth filtered, washed with water, pressed in canvas
bags, and finally fused in graphite crucibles, the surface being pro-
tected by a layer of charcoal. Another process consists in adding
water to the solution and so precipitating the bismuth as oxy-
chloride, which is then converted into the metal.

The crude metal obtained by the preceding processes is generally
contaminated by arsenic, sulphur, iron, nickel, cobalt and antimony,
and sometimes with silver or gold. A dry method of purification
consists in a liquation on a hearth of peculiar construction, which
occasions the separation of the unreduced bismuth sulphide and the
bulk of the other impurities. A better process is to remelt the metal
in crucibles with the addition of certain refining agents. The details of
this process vary very considerably, being conditioned by the composi-
tion of the impure metal and the practice of particular works. The
wet refining process is more tedious and expensive, and is only
exceptionally employed, as in the case of preparing the pure metal
or its salts for pharmaceutical or chemical purposes. The basic
nitrate is the salt generally prepared, and, in general outline, the
process consists in dissolving the metal in nitric acid, adding water
to the solution, boiling the precipitated basic nitrate with ah alkali
to remove the arsenic and lead, dissolving the residue in nitric acid,
and reprecipitating as basic nitrate with water. J. F. W. Hampe
prepared chemically pure bismuth by fusing the metal with sodium
carbonate and sulphur, dissolving the bismuth sulphide so formed
in nitric acid, precipitating the bismuth as the basic nitrate, re-
dissolving this salt in nitric acid, and then precipitating with
ammonia. The bismuth hydroxide so obtained is finally reduced by
hydrogen.

Properties. — Bismuth is a very brittle metal with a white crystal-
line fracture and a characteristic reddish-white colour. It crystal-
lizes in rhombohedra belonging to the hexagonal system, having
interfacial angles of 87 ° 40'. According to G. W^ A. Kahlbaum,
Roth and Siedler (Zeil. Anorg. Chem. 29, p. 294), its specific gravity is
9-78143; Roberts and Wrightson give the specific gravity of solid
bismuth as 9-82, and of molten bismuth as 10-055. It therefore
expands on solidification; and as it retains this property in a
number of alloys, the metal receives extensive application in forming
type-metals. Its melting-point is variously given as 268-3° (F-
Rudberg and A. D. von Riemsdijk) and 270-5° (C. C. Person);
commercial bismuth melts at 260° (Ledebur), and electrolytic
bismuth at 264° (Classen). It vaporizes in a vacuum at 292°, and its
boiling-point, under atmospheric pressure, is between 1090° and
1450° (T. Carnelley and W. C. Williams). Regnault determined its

specific heat between 0° and ioo° to be 0-0368 ;' Kahlbaum, RotH
and Siedler (loc. cit.) give the value 0-03055. Its thermal conductivity
is the lowest of all metals, being 18'as compared with silver as 10*00;
its coefficient of expansion between 0° and 100° is 0-001341.. Its
electrical conductivity is approximately 1-2, silver at 0°' being taken
as 100; it is the most diamagnetic substance known, and its therrrio-
electric properties render it especially valuable for the construction
of thermopiles. ■' ' ■;

The metal oxidizes very slowly in dry air at ordinary temperatures;
but somewhat more rapidly in moist air or when heated. ' • Jn the last
case it becomes coated with a greyish-black layer of ' an oxidfe
(dioxide (?) ),at a red heat the layer consists of the trioxide (Bi 2 p 3 );
and is yellow or green in the case of pure bismuth, 1 and Violet or'blue
if impure; at a bright red heat it burns with a bluish flame to the
trioxide. Bismuth combines directly with the halogens, and the'
elements of the sulphur group. It readily dissolves, in nitric acid,
aqua regia, and hot sulphuric acid, but tardily in hot hydrochloric
acid. It is precipitated as the metal from solutions of its salts by
the metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths, 'zinc; iron, copper, &C;
In its ;chem»cal affinities it resembles arsenic and antimony; an
important distinction is that it forms no hydrogen' /compound
analogous to arsine and stibine. ' '•' , V '.''''

Alloys. — -Bismuth readily forms alloys with other metals. Treated
with sodammonium it yields a bluish-black mass, BiN;a 3 , which takes
fire in the air and decomposes water. A brittle potassium alloy of
silver-white colour and lamellar fracture is obtained by calcining
20 parts of bisfriuth with 16 of crearn'of tartar, a*t a strong red heat.
When present in other 'metals, even in very Small quantity, bismuth
renders them brittle and impairs their electrical conductivity.'
With mercury it forms amalgams. Bismuth is a component of many
ternary alloys characterized by their "low fusibility and expansion in
solidification; many ' of them are used in : the arts (see FusiBtE
Metal),; "' ■■' '■ : ' ' : ' ' '

Compounds. — Bismuth forms four oxides, of which the trioxide,
Bi 2 3 , is the most important. This compound occurs in nature as
bismuth ochre, and may be prepared artificially by oxidizing the
metal at a red heat, or by heating the carbonate, nitrate' .or hydrate;
.Thus obtained it is a' yellow powder, soluble, in' the mineral acids
to form soluble salts, which are readily precipitated as basic salts
;When the solution is diluted. It melt? to a reddish-brown liquid,
, which solidifies to a yellow crystalline mass'ori cooling. The hydrate,
Bi(OH) 3 , is obtained as a white powder by adding potash to a solution
of a bismuth salt. Bismuth dioxide, BiO or Bi 2 2 , is said to be
formed by the limited oxidation of the metal, and as a brown pre-
cipitate by adding mixed solutions of bismuth and stannous chlorides
to a solution of caustic potash. Bismuth tetroxide, Bi 2 04, sometimes
termed bismuth bismuthate, is obtained by melting bismuth ,tfioxide
with potash, or by igniting bismuth trioxide with potash and potas-
sium chlorate. It is also formed 'by oxidizing bismuth trioxide
suspended in caustic potash with chlorine.'thepentoxide being formed
simultaneously; oxidation and, potassium ferricyanide simply gives
the tetroxide (Hauser and Vanino, Zeit. Anorg. Chem., 1904,39, p.381).
The hydrate, Bi 2 Cv2H 2 0, is also known. Bismuth pentoxide, Bi 2 C 6 ,
is obtained by heating bismuthic acid, HBi0 3 ; to 130° C. ; this acid
(in the form of its salts) being the product of the continued oxidation
of an alkaline solution of bismuth trioxide.

Bismuth forms two chlorides : BiCl 2 and BiCl 3 . The dichloride,
BiCl 2 , is obtained as a brown crystalline powder by fusing the metal
with the trichloride, or in a current of chlorine, or by heating the
metal with calomel to 250°. Water decomposes it to metallic
bismuth and the oxychloride, BiOCl. Bismuth trichloride, BiCl 3 ,
was obtained by Robert Boyle by heating the metal with corrosive
sublimate. It is the final product of burning bismuth in an excess
of chlorine. It is a white substance, melting at 225°-230° and
boiling at 435°-44l°. With excess of water, it gives a white pre-
cipitate of the oxychloride, BiOCl. Bismuth trichloride forms double
compounds with hydrochloric acid, the chlorides of the alkaline
metals, ammonia, nitric oxide and nitrosyl chloride. Bismuth tri-
fluoride, BiF 3 , a white powder, bismuth tribromide, BiBr 8 , golden
yellow crystals, bismuth iodide, Bil 3 , greyish-black crystals, are also
known. These compounds closely resemble the trichloride in their
methods of preparation and their properties, forming oxyhaloids
with water, and double compounds with ammonia, &c.

Carbonates. — The basic carbonate, 2(BiO) 2 C0 3 -H 2 0, obtained as a
white precipitate when an alkaline carbonate is added to a solution of
bismuth nitrate, is employed in medicine. Another basic carbonate,
3(BiO) 2 C0 3 -2Bi(OH) 3 -3H 2 0, constitutes the mineral bismutite.

Nitrates. — The normal nitrate, Bi(N0 3 ) 3 -5H 2 0, is obtained in
large transparent asymmetric prisms by evaporating; a solution of
the metal in nitric acid. The action of water on this solution pro-
duces a crystalline precipitate of basic nitrate, probably Bi(QH) 2 N0 3 ,
though it varies with the amount of water employed. This pre-
cipitate constitutes the " magistery of bismuth " or " subnitrate of
bismuth " of pharmacy, and under the name of pearl white, blanc
d'Espagne or blanc de fard has long been used as a cosmetic.

Sulphides. — Bismuth combines directly with ' sulphur to form, a
disulphide, BisSi, and a trisulphide, Bi 2 S 3 ,, the latter compound
being formed when the sulphur is in excess. A hydrated disulphide,'
Bi 2 S 2 -2H 2 0, is obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a
solution of bismuth nitrate and stannous chloride. Bismuth

BISMUTHITE^ISf^N

bisulphide is a grey metallic substance, which is decomposed by
hydrochloric acid with the separation of metallic bismuth and the
formation of bismuth trichloride. Bismuth trisulphide, Bi 2 S3,
constitutes, the mineral hismuthite, and may be prepared by direct
union of its constituents, or as a brown precipitate by passing
sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of a bismuth salt. It is,
easily soluble in nitric acid. When heated to 200° it assumes the
crystalline form of bismuthite. Bismuth forms several oxysulphides :
B14O3S constitutes the mineral karelinite found at the Zavodinski
mine in the Altai ;Bi 6 OaS4, and Bi 2 O s S have been prepared artificially.
Bismuth also forms the sulphohaloids, BiSCl, BiSBr, BiSI, analogous
to the oyxhaloids.

Bismuth sulphate, Bi 2 (S04)s, is obtained as a white powder by
dissolving the metal or sulphide in concentrated sulphuric acid.
Water decomposes it, giving a basic salt, Bi 2 (S04)(OH)4, which on
heating gives (BiO) 2 S04. Other basic salts are known,
'■ Bismuth forms compounds similar to the trisulphide with the
elements selenium and tellurium. The tritelluride constitutes the
mineral tetradymite, Bi 2 Te3. '

4»<z/yw.-^Traces of bismuth may be detected by treating the-
solution with excess of tartaric acid, potash and stannous chloride,,
a precipitate or dark colpration of bismuth oxide being formed' even
when only one part of bismuth is present in 20,000 of water. The:
blackish brown sulphide precipitated from bismuth salts by sulphur-
etted hydrogen is insoluble in ammonium sulphide, but is readily
dissolved by nitric acid, The metal can be reduced by magnesium,
2inc, cadmium, iron, tin, copper and substances like hypo-'
phosphorous acid- from acid solutions or froffi alkaline ones by :
formaldehyde. In quantitative estimations, it is generally weighed
as: oxide, after precipitation as sulphide or carbonate, or in the;
metallic form, reduced as above.

; Pharmacology. — The salts of bismuth are feebly antiseptic.
Taken 'internally the subnitrate, coming into contact with water,
tends to decompose, gradually liberating nitric acid, one of the most,
powerful antiseptics. The physical properties of the powder
also give it a mild astringent action. There are no remote
actions.

Tfkrapcutics.— -The subnitrate of bismuth is invaluable in certain
cases of dyspepsia, and still more notably so in diarrhoea. It owes
its value to the decomposition described above, by means of which
a powerful antiseptic action is safely and continuously exerted.
There is hardly a safer drug. It may be given in drachm doses with
impunity. It colours the faeces black owing to the formation of
sulphide.

BISMUTHITE, a somewhat rare mineral, consisting of bismuth
trisulphide, Bi 2 S3. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system
and is ispmorphous with stibnite (Sb2S 3 ) , which it closely resembles
in appearance. It forms loose interlacing aggregates of acicular
crystals without terminal faces (only in a single instance has a
terminated crystal been observed), or as masses with a foliated
or fibrous structure. An important character is the perfect:
cleavage in one direction parallel to the length of the needles.:
The colour is lead-grey inclining to tin-white and often with a
yellowish or iridescent tarnish. The hardness is 2; specific;
grayity 6/4-6'S- Bismuthite occurs at several localities in,
Cornwall and Bolivia, often in association with native bismuth:
and tin-ores. Other localities are known; for instance, Brandy
Gill in Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, where with molybdenite and
apatite it is embedded in white quartz. The mineral was known
to A. Cronstedt in 1758, and was named bismuthine by F. S.
Beudant in 1832. This name, which is also used in the forms
Bismuthite and bismuthinite, is rather unfortunate, since it is :
readily confused with bismite (bismuth oxide) and bismutitc
(basic bismuth carbonate), especially as the latter has also been;
used in the form bismuthite. The name bismuth-glance or,
bismutholamprite for the species under consideration is free from
this objection. (L. J.S.)

BISMYA, a group of ruin mounds, about 1 m. long and 5 m.
wide, consisting of a number of low ridges, nowhere exceeding 40
ft. in height, lying in the Jezireh, somewhat nearer to the Tigris
than the Euphrates, about a day's journey to the south-east of
Nippur, a little below 32° N. and about 45° 40' E. Excavations
conducted here for six months, 'from Christmas of 1903 to June
1904, for the university of Chicago, by Dr Edgar J. Banks,
proved that these' mounds covered the site of the ancient city of
Adab (Ud-Nun), hitherto known only from a brief mention of its
name in the introduction. to the Khammurabi code (e. 2250 B.C.).
The city was divided into two parts by a canal, on an island in
■which stood the temple, E-mach, with a ziggurat, or stage tower.
It was evidently once a city of considerable importance, but

deserted at a very early peripd, since the ruins found close to the
surface of the mounds belong to Dungi and Ur Gur, kings of Ur
in the earlier part of the third millennium B.C. Immediately
below these, as at Nippur, were found the remains of Naram-Sin
and Sar-gpn, c. 3000 B.C. Below these there were still 35 ft.
of stratified remains, constituting seven-eighths of the total
depth of the ruins. Besides the remains of buildings, walls,
graves, &c, Dr Banks discovered a large number of inscribed
clay tablets of a very early period, bronze and stone tablets,
bronze implements and the like. But the two most nptable
discoveries were a complete statue in white marble, apparently
the most ancient yet found in Babylonia (now in the museum in
Cpnstantinpple), bearing the inscription—" E-mach, King
Da-uclu, King of, Ud-Nun "; and a temple refuse heap,
consisting of great quantities of fragments of vases in marble,
alabaster, onyx, porphyry and granite, some of which were
inscribed, and others engraved and inlaid with ivory and precious
stones. ' (J. P. Pe.)

' BISON, the name of the one existing species of European wild
ox, Bos (Bison) bonasus, known in Russian as zubr. Together
with the nearly allied New World animal known in Europe as
the (North) American bison, but in its own country as " buffalo,"
and scientifically as Bos (Bison) bison, the bison represents a
group of the ox tribe distinguished from other species by the
greater breadth and convexity of the forehead, superior length
of limb, and the longer spinal processes of the dorsal vertebrae,
which, with the powerful muscles attached for the support of the
massive head, form a protuberance or hump on the shoulders.
The bisons have also fourteen pairs of ribs, while the common ox
has only thirteen. The forehead and neck of both species are
covered with long, shaggy hair of a dark brown colour; and in
winter the whole of the neck, shoulders and hump are similarly
clothed, so as to form a curly, felted mane. This mane in the
European species disappears in summer; but in the American
bison it is to a considerable extent persistent.

The bison is now the largest European quadruped, measuring
about 10 ft. long, exclusive of the tail, and standing nearly 6 ft.
high. Formerly it was abundant throughout Europe, as is
proved by the fossil remains of this or a closely allied form found
on the continent and in . England, associated with those of the
extinct mammoth and rhinoceros. Caesar mentions the bison
as abounding, along with the extinct aurochs or wild ox, in the
forests of Germany and Belgium, where it appears to have been
occasionally captured and afterwards exhibited alive in the
Roman amphitheatres. At that period, and long after, it seems
to have been common throughout central Europe, as we learn
from the evidence of Herberstein in the 16th century. Nowadays
bison are found in a truly wild condition only in the forests of the
Caucasus, where they are specially protected by the Russian
government. There is, however, a herd, somewhat in the
condition of park-animals, in the forest of Byelovitsa, in Lithu-
ania, where it is protected by the tsar, but nevertheless is
gradually dying out. In 1862 the Lithuanian bisons numbered
over 1200, but by 1872 they had diminished to 528, and in 1892
there were only 491. The prince of Pless has a small herd at
Promnitz, his Silesian estate, founded by the gift of a bull and
three cows by Alexander II. in 1855, his herd being the source
of the menagerie supply.

Bison feed on a coarse aromatic grass, and browse on the
leaves, shoots, bark and twigs of trees;

The American bison is distinguished from its European cousin
by the following among other features: The hind-quarters are
weaker and fall away more suddenly, while the withers are
proportionately higher. Especially characteristic is the great
mass of brown or blackish brown hair clothing the head, neck
and forepart of the body. The shape of the skull and horns is
also different; the horns themselves being shorter, thicker,
blunter and more sharply curved, while the forehead of the
skull is more convex and the sockets of the eyes are more
distinctly tubular. This species formerly ranged over a third of
North America in countless numbers, but is now practically
extinct. The great herd was separated into a northern and

BISQUE— BITHYNIA

southern division by the completion of the Union Pacific railway,
and the annual rate of destruction from 1870 to 1875 has been
estimated at 2,500,000 head. In 1880 the completion of the
Northern Pacific railway led to an attack upon the northern herd.
The last of the Dakota bisons were destroyed by Indians in 1883,
leaving then less than 1000 wild individuals in the United
States.

A count which was concluded at the end of February 1903,
put the number of captive bisons at 11 19, of which 969 were in
parks and zoological gardens in the United States, 41 in Canada
and 109 in Europe. At the same time it was estimated that
there were 34 wild bison in the United States and 600 in Canada.

In England small herds are kept by the duke of Bedford at
Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire, and by Mr C. J. Leyland at
Haggerston Castle, Northumberland.

Two races of the American bison have been distinguished —
the typical prairie form, and the woodland race, B. bison
athabascae; but the two are very similar. (R. L.*)

BISQUE (a French word of unknown origin, formerly spelt in
English "bisk"), a term for odds given in the games of tennis,
lawn tennis, croquet and golf; in the two former a bisque is one
point to be taken at any time during a " set " at the choice of
the receiver of the odds, while in croquet and golf it is one extra
stroke to be taken similarly during a game. The name is given,
in cookery, to a thick soup, made particularly of crayfish or
lobsters.

BISSELL, GEOBGE EDWIN (1839- ), American sculptor,
son of a quarryman and marble-cutter, was born at New Preston,
Connecticut, on the 16th of February 1839. During the Civil
War he served as a private in the 23rd Connecticut volunteers
in the Department of the Gulf (1862-1863), and on being
mustered out became acting assistant paymaster in the South
Atlantic squadron. At the close of the war he joined his father
in business. He studied the art of sculpture abroad in 1875-1876,
and lived much in Paris during the years 1883-1896, with
occasional visits to America. Among his more important works
are the soldiers' and sailers' monument, and a statue of Colonel
Chatfield, at Waterbury, Connecticut; and statues of General
Gates at Saratoga, New York, of Chancellor John Watts in
Trinity churchyard, New York City; of Colonel Abraham de
Peyster in Bowling Green, New York City; of Abraham Lincoln
at Edinburgh; of Burns and "Highland Mary," in Ayr,
Scotland; of Chancellor James Kent, in the Congressional
library, Washington; and of President Arthur in Madison
Square, New York City.

BISSEXT, or Bissextus (Lat. Ms, twice; sextus, sixth), the
day intercalated by the Julian calendar in the February of every
fourth year to make up the six hours by which the solar year was
computed to exceed the year of 365 days. The day was inserted
after the 24th of February, i.e. the 6th day before the calends
(1st) of March; there was consequently, besides the sextus, or
sixth before the calends, the bis-sextus or " second sixth," our
25th of February. In modern usage, with the exception of
ecclesiastical calendars, the intercalary day is added for con-
venience at the end of the month, and years in which February
has 29 days are called " bissextile," or leap-years.

BISTRE, the French name of a brown paint made from the
soot of wood, now largely superseded by Indian ink.

BIT (from the verb " to bite," either in the sense of a piece
bitten off, or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten),
generally, a piece of anything; the word is, however, used in
various special senses, all derivable from its origin, either literally
or metaphorically. The most common of these are (1) its use
as the name of various tools, e.g. centre-bit; (2) a horse's " bit,"
or the metal mouth-piece of the bridle; (3) in money, a small
sum of money of varying value (e.g. threepenny-bit), especially
in the West Indies and southern United States:

BITHUR, a town in the Cawnpore district of the United
Provinces of India, 12 m. N.W. of Cawnpore city. Pop. (1901)
7173. It is chiefly notable for its connexion with the mutiny of
1857. The last of the peshwas, B a ji Rao, was banished to Bithur,
and his adopted son, the Nana Sahib, made the town his head-

quarters. It was captured by Hayelock on the 19th of July
1857, when the Nana's palaces were destroyed.

BITHYNIA (Bidvvla), an ancient district in the N.W. of
Asia Minor, adjoining the Propontis, the Thracian Bosporus
and the Euxine. According to Strabo it was bounded on the
. E. by the river Sangarius; but the more commonly received
division extended it to the Parthenius, which separated it from
Paphlagonia, thus comprising the district inhabited by the
Mariandyni. On the W. and S.W. it was separated from Mysia
by the river Rhyndacus; and on the S. it adjoined Phrygia
Epictetus and Galatia. It is in great part occupied by moun-
tains and forests, but has valleys and districts near the sea-coast
of great fertility. The most important mountain range is the
(so-called) " Mysian " Olympus (7600 ft.), which towers above
Brusaandis clearly visible as far away as Constantinople (70 m.).
Its summits are covered with snow for a great part of the year.
East of this the range now called Ala-Dagh extends for above
100 m. from the Sangarius to Paphlagonia. Both of these ranges
belong to that border of mountains which bounds the great table-
land of Asia Minor. The country between them and the coast,
covered with forests and traversed by few lines of route, is still
imperfectly known. But the broad tract which projects towards
the west as far as the shores of the Bosporus, though hilly and
covered with forests — the Turkish Aghatch Denizi, or "The
Ocean of Trees " — is not traversed by any mountain chain. The
west coast is indented by two deep inlets, (1) the northernmost,
the Gulf of Ismid (anc. Gulf of Astacus), penetrating between
40 and 50 m. into the interior as far as Ismid (anc. Nicomedia),
separated by an isthmus of only about 25 m. from the Black
Sea; (2) the Gulf of Mudania or Gemlik (Gulf of Cius), about
25 m. long. At its extremity is situated the small town of
Gemlik (anc. Cius) at the mouth of a valley, communicating
with the lake of Isnik, on which was situated Nicaea.

The principal rivers are the Sangarius (mod. Sakaria), which
traverses the province from south to north; the Rhyndacus, which
separated it from Mysia; and the Billaeus (Filiyas), which rises
in the Ala-Dagh, about 50 m. from the sea, and after flowing
by Boli (anc. ClaudiopoHs) falls into the Euxine, close to the
ruins of the ancient Tium, about 40 m. north-east of Heraclea,
having a course of more than 100 m. The Parthenius (mod.
Bartan), the boundary of the province towards the east, is a
much less considerable stream.

Thenaturalresources of Bi thynia are still imperfectly developed.
Its vast forests would furnish an almost inexhaustible supply
of timber, if rendered accessible by roads. Coal also is known
to exist near Eregli (Heraclea). The valleys towards the Black
Sea abound in fruit trees of all kinds, while the valley of the
Sangarius and the plains near Brusa and Isnik (Nicaea) are
fertile and well cultivated. Extensive plantations of mulberry
trees supply the silk for which Brusa has long been celebrated,
and which is manufactured there on a large scale.

According to ancient authors (Herodotus, Xenophon, Strabo,
&c), the Bithynians were an immigrant Thracian tribe. The
existence of a tribe called Thyni in Thrace is well attested, and
the two cognate tribes of the Thyni and Bithyni appear to have
settled simultaneously in the adjoining parts of Asia, where they
expelled or subdued the Mysians, Caucones, and other petty
tribes, the Mariandyni alone maintaining themselves in the north-
east. Herodotus mentions the Thyni and Bithyni as existing side
by side; but ultimately the latter must have become the more
important, as they gave their name to the country. They were
incorporated by Croesus with the Lydian monarchy, with which
they fell under the dominion of Persia (546 B.C.), and were
included in the satrapy of Phrygia, which comprised all the
countries up to the Hellespont and Bosporus. But even before
the conquest by Alexander the Bithynians appear to have
asserted their independence, and successfully maintained it
under two native princes, Bas and Zipoetes, the last of whom
transmitted his power to his son Nicomedes I., the first to
assume the title of king. This monarch founded Nicomedia,
which soon rose to great prosperity, and during his long reign
(278-250 B.C.), as well as those of his successors, Prusias I.,

BITLIS— BITTERLING

Prusias II, and Nicomedes II. (149-91 B.C.), the kingdom of
Bithynia held a considerable place among the minor monarchies
of Asia. But the last king, Nicomedes III., was unable to
maintain himself against Mithradates of Pontus, and, after being
restored to his throne by the Roman senate, he bequeathed his
kingdom by will to the Romans (74 B.C.). Bithynia now became
a Roman province. Its limits were frequently varied, and it
>yas commonly united for administrative purposes with the
province of Pontus. This was the state of things in the time of
Trajan, when the younger Pliny was appointed governor of
the combined provinces (103-105 a.d.), a circumstance to
which we are indebted for valuable information concerning the
Roman provincial administration. Under the Byzantine empire
Bithynia was again divided into two provinces, separated by the
Sangarius, to the west of which the name of Bithynia was
restricted.

The most important cities were Nicomedia and Nicaea, which
disputed with one another the rank of capital. Both of these
were founded after Alexander the Great; but at a much earlier
period the Greeks had established on the coast the colonies of
Cius (afterwards Prusias, mod. Gemlik) ; Chalcedon, at the
entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite Constantinople; and
Heraclea Pontica, on the Euxine, about 120 m. east of the Bos-
porus. All these rose to be flourishing places of trade, as also
Prusa at the foot of M. Olympus (see Brusa). The only other
places of importance at the present day are Ismid (Nicomedia)
and Scutari.

. See C. Texier, Asie Mineure (Paris, 1839); G. Perrot, Galatie et
Bithynie (Paris, 1862); W. von Diest in Petermanns Mittheilungen,
Erganzungsheft, 116 (Gotha, 1895). (E. H. B.; F. W. Ha.)

BITLIS, or Betlis (Arm. Paghesh), the chief town of a vilayet
of the same name in Asiatic Turkey, situated at an altitude of
4700 ft., in the deep, narrow valley of the Bitlis Chai, a tributary
of the Tigris. The main part of the town and the bazaars are
crowded alongside the stream, while suburbs with scattered
houses among orchards and gardens extend up two tributary
streams. The houses are massive and well built of a soft volcanic
tufa, and with their courtyards and gardens climbing up the
hillsides afford a striking picture. At the junction of two
streams in the centre of the town is a fine old castle, partly
ruined, which, according to local tradition, occupies the site
of a fortress built by Alexander the Great. It is apparently
an Arab building, as Arabic inscriptions appear on the walls, but
as the town stands on the principal highway between the Van
plateau and the Mesopotamian plain it must always have been
of strategic importance. The bazaars are crowded, covered
across with branches in summer, and typical of a Kurdish town.
The population numbers 35,000, of whom about 12,000 are
Armenians and the remainder are Kurds or of Kurdish descent.

Kurdish beys and sheiks have much influence in the town
and wild mountain districts adjoining, while the Sasun moun-
tains, the scene of successive Armenian revolutions of late years,
are not far off to the west. The town was ruled by a semi-
independent Kurdish bey as late as 1836. There are some fine
old mosques and medresses (colleges), and the Armenians have a
large monastery and churches. There are British, French and
Russian consuls in the town, and a branch of the American
Mission with schools is established also. The climate is healthy
and the thermometer rarely falls below o° Fahr., but there is a
heavy snowfall and the narrow streets are blocked for some five
months in the year.

A good road runs southward down the pass, passing after a
few miles some large chalybeate and sulphur springs. Roads
also lead north to Mush and Erzerum and along the lake to Van.
Postal communication is through Erzerum with Trebizond.
Tobacco of an inferior quality is largely grown, and the chief
industry is the weaving of a coarse red cloth. Manna and gum
tragacanth are also collected. Fruit is also plentiful, and there
are many vineyards close by.

The Bitlis vilayet comprises a very varied section of Asiatic
Turkey, as it includes the Mush plain and the plateau country
west of Lake Van, as well as a large extent of wild mountain

districts inhabited by turbulent Kurds and Armenians on either
side of the central town of Bitlis, also some of the lower country
about Sairt along the left bank of the main stream of the Tigris.
The mountains have been little explored, but are believed to
be rich in minerals, iron, lead, copper, traces of gold and many
mineral springs are known to exist. (F. R. M.)

BITONTO (anc. Butunti), a town and episcopal see of Apulia,
Italy, in the province of Bari, 10 m. west by steam tramway
fromBari. Pop. (1901) 30,617. It was a place of no importance
in classical times. Its medieval walls are still preserved. Its
cathedral is one of the finest examples of the Romanesque archi-
tecture of Apulia, and has escaped damage from later restorations.
The palazzo Sylos-Labini has a fine Renaissance court of 1502.

BITSCH (Fr. Bitche), a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorraine,
on the Horn, at the foot of the northern slope of the Vosges
between Hagenau and Saargemiind. Pop. (1905) 4000. There
are a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, a classical school
and an academy of forestry. The industries include shoe-making
and watch-making, and there is some trade in grain and timber.
The town of Bitsch, which was formed cfut of the villages of
Rohr and Kaltenhausen in the 17th century, derives its name
from the old stronghold (mentioned in n 72 as Bytis Castrum)
standing on a rock some 250 ft. above the town. This had long
given its name to the countship of Bitsch, which was originally
in the possession of the dukes of Lorraine. In 1297 it passed by
marriage to Eberhard I. of Zweibriicken, whose line became
extinct in 1569, when the countship reverted to Lorraine. It
passed with that duchy to France in 1766. After that date the
town rapidly increased in population. The citadel, which had
been constructed by Vauban on the site of the old castle after
the capture of Bitsch by the French in 1624, had been destroyed
when it was restored to Lorraine in 1698. This was restored
and strengthened in 1740 into a fortress that proved impregnable
in all succeeding wars. The attack upon it by the Prussians
in 1793 was repulsed; in 181 5 they had to be content with
blockading it; and in 1870, though it was closely invested by
the Germans after the battle of Worth, it held out until the end
of the war. A large part of the fortification is excavated in the
red sandstone rock, and rendered bomb-proof; a supply of
water is secured to the garrison by a deep well in the interior.

BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867- ), American
sculptor, was born in Vienna on the 6th of December 1867.
After studying art there, in 1889 he removed to the United
States, where he became naturalized. In America he gained
great popularity as a sculptor, and in 1906-1907 was presi-
dent of the National Sculpture Society, New York. Among
his principal works are: the Astor memorial gates, Trinity
church, New York; " Elements Controlled and Uncontrolled,"
on the Administration Building at the Chicago Exposition;
a large relief, " Triumph of Civilization," in the waiting-room
of the Broad Street station of the Pennsylvania railway in
Philadelphia; decorations for the Dewey Naval Arch in New
York City; the " Standard Bearers," at the Pan-American
Exposition grounds; a sitting statue and a bust of Dr Pepper,
provost of the University of Pennsylvania; and the Villard
and Hubbard memorials in the New York chamber of commerce.

BITTERFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, 26 m. N. from Leipzig by rail, on the river Mulde,
and an important junction of railways from Leipzig and Halle
to Berlin. Pop. (1900) 11,839. It manufactures drain-pipes,
paper-roofing and machinery, and has saw-mills. Several
coal-mines are in the vicinity. The town was built by a colony
of Flemish immigrants in n 53. It was captured by the land-
grave of Meissen in 1476, and belonged thenceforth to Saxony,
until it was ceded to Prussia in 18 15. Owing to its pleasant
situation and accessibility, it has become a favourite residence
of business men of Leipzig and Halle.

BITTERLING {Rhodeus amarus), a little carp-like fish of
central Europe, belonging to the Cyprinid family. In it we
have a remarkable instance of symbiosis. The genital papilla
of the female acquires a great development during the breeding
season and becomes produced into a tube nearlv as long as the

BITTERN— BITUMEN

fish itself; this acts as an ovipositor by means of which the
comparatively few and large eggs (3 millimetres in diameter)
are introduced through the gaping valves between the branchiae
of pond mussels (Unio and Anodonta), where, after being in-
seminated, they undergo their development, the fry leaving
their host about a month later. The mollusc reciprocates by
throwing off its embryos on the parent fish, in the skin of which
they remain encysted for some time, the period of reproduction
of the fish and mussel coinciding.

BITTERN, a genus of wading birds, belonging to the family
Ardeidae, comprising several species closely allied to the herons,
from which they differ chiefly in their shorter neck, the back of
which is covered with down, and the front with long feathers',
which can be raised at pleasure. They are solitary birds, frequent-
ing countries possessing extensive swamps, and marshy grounds,
remaining at rest by day, concealed among the reeds and bushes
of their haunts, and seeking their food, which consists of fish,
reptiles, insects and small quadrupeds, in the twilight. The
<c ommon bittern ( Botaurus stellaris) is nearly as large as the heron,
mid is widely distributed over the eastern hemisphere. Formerly
it was common in Britain, but extensive drainage and persecution

Bittern.

have greatly diminished its numbers and it is now only an un-
certain visitor. Not a winter passes without its appearing in
some numbers, when its uncommon aspect, its large size, and
beautifully pencilled plumage cause it to be regarded as a great
prize by the lucky gun-bearer to whom it falls a victim. Its
value as a delicacy for the table, once so highly esteemed, has
long vanished. The old fable of this bird inserting its beak into
a reed or plunging it into the ground, and so causing the booming
sound with which its name will be always associated, is also
exploded, and nowadays indeed so few people in Britain have
ever heard its loud and awful voice, which seems to be uttered
only in the breeding-season, and is therefore unknown in a country
where it no longer breeds, that incredulity as to its booming at
all has in some quarters succeeded the old belief in this as in
other reputed peculiarites of the species. The bittern in the
days of falconry was strictly preserved, and afforded excellent
sport. It sits crouching on the ground during the day, with its
bill pointing in the air, a position from which it is not easily
roused, and even when it takes wing, it's flight is neither swift
nor long sustained. When wounded it requires to be approached
with caution, as it will then attack either man or dog with its
long sharp bill and its acute claws. It builds a rude nest among
the reeds and flags, out Of the materials which surround it, and

the female lays four or five* eggs* bf'a brOWhish olive, ' During
the breeding season it utters a booming- noise, front which it
probably derives its generic name, Botaurus, and . which has
made it in many places an object of superstitious , dreadi Its
plumage for the'most partis of a pale buff colour, rayed anc[
speckled with black and reddish brown. The American bittern
{Botaurus lentigifiosus) i'.is somewhat smaller, than the European
species, and is found throughout the central and southern
portions Of North America. It also occurs' in' Britain as an
occasional straggler. It is distinguishable by its uniform greyish-
brown primaries, which want the tawny bars that characterize^
B. stellaris. Both species are good eating. .

BITTERN (from " bitter "), the mother liquor obtained ftom
sea-water or brines after the separation of the. sodium chloride
(common salt) by Crystallization. It contains various mag-
nesium salts (sulphate, chloride, bromide and iodide) and, is
employed; commercially for the manufacture of Epsom salts
(magnesium sulphate) and bromine. The same term is applied
to a mixture of quassia, iron sulphate, cocculus indicus, liquorice.
&c, used in adulterating beer.

BITTERS, the name given to aromatized (generally alcoholic)
beverages containing a bitter substance ,'pr Substances, used as
tonics, appetizers or digestives. The bitterness is imparted by
such substances as bitter orange rind, gentian, rhubarb, quassia,
cascarilla, angostura, quinine and cinchona. Juniper, cinnamon",
carraway, camomile, cloves and other flavouring agents are also
employed in conjunction with the bitter principles, alcohol and
sugar. Sorne bitters are prepared by simple maceration and
subsequent filtration (see Liqueurs), others by the more conv
plicated distillation process. Those prepared by the latter
process are the finer commercial articles.' Bitters are usually
Sold under the name of the substance which has been used to
give them the predominant flavour, siich as orange, angostura
or peach bitters, &c. The alcoholic strength of bitters varies,
but is generally in the neighbourhood of 46% of alcohol. Some
bitters, although possessing tonic properties; may be regarded
as beverages pure and simple, notwithstanding the fact that they
are seldom consumed in an undiluted" state; others again, are
obviously medicinal preparations and should be treated as such!

BITUMEN, the name applied by the Romans to the various
descriptions of natural hydrocarbons, the yard petroleum not
being used in classical Latin. In its widest sense it embraces the
whole range of these substances, including natural gas, the more
or less liquid descriptions of petroleum, and' the solid forms of
asphalt, albertite, gilsonite or uintahite, elaterite, ozokerite and
hatchettite. To distinguish bitumen intermediate in consistency
between asphalt and the more liquid kinds of crude petroleum,
the term maltha (Latin) is frequently employed. The bitumens
of chief commercial importance may be grouped under the three
headings of (1) natural gas, (2) petroleum, arid (3) asphalt, and
will be found fully described under these titles. In the scriptures
there are numerous references to bitumen, arnong which the
following may be quoted: — In Genesis ix. 3, we are told that in
the building of the tower of Babel " slime had they for mortar,"
and iii Genesis xiv. 10, that the vale of Siddim " was full of
slime-pits," the word slime in the latter quotation from our
version appearing as bitumen in the Vulgate. Herodotus alludes
to the use of the bitumen brought down by the Is, a tributary
of the Euphrates, as mortar in building the walls of Babylon;
Diodorus, Curtius, 'Josephus, Bochart and others make similar
mention of this use of bitumen, and Vitruvius tells us that it
was employed inadmixture with clay.

In its various forms, bitumen is one of the most widely dis-
tributed of substances. It occurs, though sometimes only in
small quantity, in aliriost every part of the globe, and 'through-
out the whole range of geological strata, from the Laurentian
rocks to the most recent members of the Quaternary period.
Although the gaseous and liquid forms of bitumen may be' re-
garded as having been formed in the strata in which, they are
found or as having been received into such strata shortly after
forrnation, the semi-solid and solid varieties may be considered
to have been produced by the' oxidation and evaporation of

BITURIGES^BIXIO

liquid petroleum escaping from underlying or better preserved
deposits into other strata, or into fissures where atmospheric
action and loss of the more volatile constituents can take place.
It should, however, be stated that there is some difference of
opinion as to the precise manner of production of some of the
solid forms of bitumen, and especially of ozokerite. (B. R.)

BITURIGES, a Celtic people, according to Livy (v. 34) the
most powerful in Gaul in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. At
some period unknown they split up into two branches — Bituriges
Cubi and Bituriges Vivisci. The name is supposed to mean
either " rulers of the world " or " perpetual kings."

The Bituriges Cubi, called simply Bituriges by Caesar, in
whose time they acknowledged the supremacy of the Aedui,
inhabited the modern diocese of Bourges, including the depart-'
ments of Cher and Indre, and partly that of Allier. Their chief
towns were Avaricum (Bourges), Argentomagus (Argenton-sur-
Creuse), Neriomagus (Neris-les-Bains), Noviodunum (perhaps
Villate). At the time of the rebellion of Vercingetorix (52 B.C.),
Avaricum, after a desperate resistance, was taken by assault,
and the inhabitants put to the sword. In the following year,
the Bituriges submitted to Caesar, and under Augustus they
were incorporated (in 28 B.C.) in Aquitania. Pliny (Nat. Hist.
iv. iog) speaks of them as liberi, which points to their enjoying
a certain amount of independence under Roman government.
The district contained a number of iron works, and Caesar says
they were skilled in driving galleries and mining operations,

The Bituriges Vivisci occupied the strip of land between the
sea and the left bank of the Garonne, comprising the greater
part of the modern department of Gironde. Their capital was
Burdigala (Bordeaux), even then a place of considerable import-
ance and a wine-growing centre. Like the Cubi, they also are
called liberi by Pliny.

See A. Desjardiris, Geographie historique de la Gaule romaine,^ ii.
(1876-1893) ; A. Longnon, Geographie de la Gaule au VI' siecle
(1878); A. Holder, Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz; T. R. Holmesi
Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899).

BITZIUS, ALBRECHT (1797-1854), Swiss novelist, best known
by his pen name of "Jeremias Gotthelf," was born on the 4th
of October 1797 at Morat, where his father was pastor. In 1804
the home was moved to Utzenstorf, a village in the Bernese
Emmenthal. Here young Bitzius grew up, receiving his early
education and consorting with the boys of the village, as well as
helping his father to cultivate his glebe. In 181 2 he went to
complete his education at Bern, and in 1820 was received as a
pastor. In 1821 he visited the university of Gottingen, but
returned home in 1822 to act as his father's assistant. On his
father's death (1824) he went in the same capacity to Herzogen-
buchsee, and later to Bern (1829). Early in 1831 he went as
assistant to the aged pastor of the village of Liitzelfliih, in the
Upper Emmenthal (between Langnau and Burgdorf), being soon
elected his successor (1832) and marrying one of his grand-
daughters (1833). He spent the rest of his life there, dying on
the 22nd of October 1854, and leaving three children (the son was
a pastor, the two daughters married pastors). His first work,
the Bauernspiegel, appeared in 1837. It purported to be the life
of Jeremias Gotthelf, narrated by himself, and this name was
later adopted by the author as his pen name. It is a living
picture of Bernese (or, strictly speaking, Emmenthal) village
life, true to nature, and not attempting to gloss over its defects
and failings. It is written (like the rest of his works) in the
Bernese dialect of the Emmenthal, though it must be remembered
that Bitzius was not (like Auerbach) a peasant by birth, but
belonged to the educated classes, so that he reproduces what he
had seen and learnt, and not what he had himself personally
experienced. The book was a great success, as it was a picture
of real life, and not of fancifully beribboned 18th-century
villagers. Among his later tales are the Leiden und Freuden
eines Schulmeisters (1838-1839), Uli der Knecht (1841), with its
continuation, Uli der Pachter (1849), Anne Bdbi Jowiiger (1843-
1844), Kathi die Grossmulter (1847), Die Kdserei in der Vehfreude
(1850), and the Erlebnisse eines Schiddenbauers (1854). He
published also several volumes of shorter tales. One slight

drawback to some of his writings is the echo of local political
controversies, for Bitzius was a Whig and strongly opposed U>
the Radical party in the canton, which carried the day in 184&

Lives by C. Manuel, in the Berlin edition of Bitzius's works
(Berlin, 1861); and by J. Ammann in vol. i. (Bern, 1884) of the
Sammlung Bernischer Biographien. His works were issued in
24 vols, at Berlin, 1856-1861, while 10 vols., giving the original
text of each story, were issued at Bern, 1898-1900 (edition not to be
completed). (W. A. B. C.)

BIVOUAC (a French word generally said to have been intro-
duced during the Thirty Years' War, perhaps derived from
Beiwacht, extra guard), originally, a night-watch by a whole
army under arms to prevent surprise. In modern military par-
lance the word is used to mean a temporary encampment in
the open field without tents, as opposed to " billets " or " canton-
ment " on the one hand and " camp " on the other. The use
of bivouacs permits an army to remain closely concentrated
for all emergencies, and avoids the necessity for numerous
wagons carrying tents. Constant bivouacs, however, are trying
to the health of men and horses, and this method of quartering
is never employed except when the military situation demands
concentration and readiness. Thus the outposts would often:
have to bivouac while the main body of the army lay in billets.

BIWA, a lake in the province of Omi, Japan. It measures
36 m. in length by 12 m. in extreme breadth, has an area of 180
sq. m., is about 330 ft. above sea-level, and has an extreme
depth of some 300 ft. There are a few small islands in the lake,
the principal being Chikubu-shima at the northern end.

Tradition alleges that Lake Biwa and the mountain of Fuji
were produced simultaneously by an earthquake in 286 B.C.
On the west of the lake the mountains Hiei-zan and Hira-yama
slope down almost to its margin, and on the east a wide plain
extends towards the boundaries of the province of Mino. It is
drained by a river flowing out of its southern end, and taking
its course into the sea at Osaka. This river bears in succession
the names Of Seta-gawa, Uji-gawa and Yodo-gawa. The lake
abounds with fish, and the beauty of its scenery is remarkable.
Small steamboats ply constantly to the points of chief interest,
and around its shores are to be viewed the Omi-no-hakkei, or
" eight landscapes of Omi "; namely, the lake 'silvering under
an autumn moon as one looks down from Ishi-yama; the snow
at eve on Hira-yama; the glow of sunset at Seta; the groves
and classic temple of Mii-dera as, the evening bell sounds; boats
sailing home from Yabase; cloudless peaks at Awazu; rain at
nightfall over Karasaki; and wild geese sweeping down to
Katata. The lake is connected with Kyoto by a canal constructed
in 1890, and is thus brought into water communication with
Osaka. '

BIXIO, NINO (1821-1873), Italian soldier, was born on the
2nd of October 182 1. While still a boy he was compelled by
his parents to embrace a maritime career. After numerous
adventures he returned to Italy in 1846, joined the Giovine Italia,
and, on 4th November 1847, made himself conspicuous at Genoa
by seizing the bridle of Charles Albert's horse and crying, " Pass
the Ticino, Sire, and we are all with you." He fought through
the campaign of 1848, became captain under Garibaldi at Rome
in 1849, taking prisoners an entire French battalion, and gaining
the gold medal for military valour. In 1859 he commanded a
Garibaldian battalion, and gained the military cross of Savoy.
Joining the Marsala expedition in i860, he turned the day in
favour of Garibaldi at Calatafimi, was wounded at Palermo, but
recovered in time to besiege Reggio in Calabria (21st of August
i860), and, though again wounded, took part in the battle of
Volturno, where his leg was broken. Elected deputy in 1861,
he endeavoured to reconcile Cavour and Garibaldi. In 1866, at
the head of the seventh division, he covered the Italian retreat
from Custozza, ignoring the Austrian summons to surrender.
Created senator in February 1870, he was in the following
September given command of a division during the movement
against Rome, took Civita. Vecchia, and participated in the
general attack upon Rome (20th September 1870). He died of
cholera at Achin Bay in Sumatra en roule for Batavia, whither he

BIZERTA— BIZET

had gone in command of a commercial expedition (16th December

BIZERTA (properly pronounced Ben Zert; Fr. Bizerte), a
seaport of Tunisia, in 37 17' N., o° 50' E. Pop. about 12,000.
Next to Toulon, Bizerta is the most important naval port of
France in the Mediterranean. It occupies a commanding
strategical position in the narrowest part of the sea, being 714 m.
E. of Gibraltar, 1168 m. W.N.W. of Port Said, 240 m. N.W. of
Malta, and 420 m. S. by E. of Toulon. It is 60 m. by rail N.N.W.
of Tunis. The town is built on the shores of the Mediterranean
at the point where the. Lake of Bizerta enters the sea through a
natural channel, the mouth of which has been canalized. The
modern town lies almost entirely on the north side of the canal.
A little farther north are the ancient citadel, the walled " Arab "
town and the old harbour (disused). The present outer harbour
covers about 300 acres and is formed by two converging jetties
and a breakwater. The north jetty is 4000 ft. long, the east
jetty 3300 ft., and the breakwater— which protects the port from
the prevalent north-east winds — 2300 ft. long. The entrance to
the canal is in the centre of the outer harbour. The canal is
2600 ft. long and 787 ft. wide on the surface. Its banks are
lined with quays, and ships drawing 26 ft. of water can moor
alongside. At the end of the canal is a large commercial
harbour, beyond which the channel opens into the lake— in
reality an arm of the sea— roughly circular in form and covering
about 50 sq. m., two-thirds of its waters having a depth of 30
to 40 ft. The lake, which merchant vessels are not allowed
to enter, contains the naval port and arsenal. There is a
torpedo and submarine boat station on the north side of the
channel at the entrance to the lake, but the principal naval
works are at Sidi Abdallah at the south-west corner of the
lake and 10 m. from the open sea. Here is an enclosed basin
covering 123 acres with ample quayage, dry docks and every-
thing necessary to the accommodation, repair, revictualling and
coaling of a numerous fleet. Barracks, hospitals and water-
works have been built, the military town, called Ferryville,
being self-contained.

Fortifications have been built for the protection of the port.
They comprise (a) the older works surrounding the town; (b) a
group of coast batteries on the high ground of Cape Bizerta or
Guardia, 4 m. north-north-west of the town; these are grouped
round a powerful fort called JebelKebir, and have a command
of 300 to 800 ft. above sea-level; (c) another group of batteries
on the narrow ground between the sea and the lake to the east
of the town; the highest of these is the Jebel Tuila battery
265 ft. above sea-level.

The Lake of Bizerta, called Tinja by the Arabs, abounds in
excellent fish, especially mullets, the, dried roe of which, called
botargo, is largely exported, and the fishing industry employs a
large proportion of the inhabitants. The western shore of the
lake is low, and in many places is covered with olive trees to the
water's edge. The south-eastern shores are hilly and wooded,
and behind them rises a range of picturesque hills. A narrow
and shallow channel leads from the western side of the lake into
another sheet of water, the Lake of Ishkul, so called from Jebel
Ishkul, a hill on its southern bank 1740 ft. high. The Lake of
Ishkul is nearly as large as the first lake, but is very shallow. Its
waters are generally sweet.

Bizerta occupies the site of the ancient Tyrian colony, Hippo
Zarytus or Diarrhytus, the harbour of which, by means of a
spacious pier, protecting it from the north-east wind, was
rendered one of the safest and finest on this coast. The town
became a Roman colony, and was conquered by the Arabs in the
7th century. The place thereafter was subject either to the
rulers of Tunis or of Constantine, but the citizens were noted for
their frequent revolts. They threw in their lot (c. 1 530) with the
pirate Khair-ed-Din, and subsequently received a Turkish
garrison. Bizerta was captured by the Spaniards in 153 s, but
not long afterwards came under the Tunisian government.
Centuries of neglect followed, and the ancient port was almost
choked up, though the value of the fisheries saved the town from
utter decay. Its strategical importance was one of. the causes

which led. to the occupation of Tunisia by the French in 1881.
In 1890 a concession for a new canal and harbour was granted
to a company, and five years later the new port was formally
opened. Since then the canal has been widened and deepened,
and the naval port at Sidi Abdallah created.

BIZET [Alexandre Cesar. Leopold] GEORGES (1838-1875),
French musical composer, was born at Bougival, near Paris, on
the 25th of October 1838, the son of a singing-master. He
displayed musical ability at an early age, and was sent to the
Paris Conservatoire, where he studied under Halevy and speedily
distinguished himself, carrying off prizes for organ and fugue,
and finally in 1857, after an ineffectual attempt in the previous
year, the Grand Prix de Rome for a cantata called Cloris et
Clotilde. A success of a different kind also befell him at this time.
Offenbach, then manager of the Theatre des Bouffes-Parisiens,
had organized a competition for an operetta, in which young
Bizet was awarded the first prize in conjunction with Charles
Leeocq, each of them writing an operetta called Docteur Miracle.
After the three years spent in Rome, an obligation imposed by
the French government on the winners of the first prize at the
Conservatoire, Bizet returned to Paris, where he achieved a
reputation as a pianist and accompanist. On the 23rd of
September 1863 his first opera, Les Pecheurs de perles, was
brought out at the Theatre Lyrique, but owing possibly to the'
somewhat uninteresting nature of the story, the opera did not
enjoy a very long run. The qualities displayed by the composer,
however, were amply recognized, although the music was stated,
by some critics, to exhibit traces of Wagnerian influence.
Wagnerism at that period was a sort of spectre that haunted the
imagination of many leading members of the musical press. It
sufficed for a work to be at all out of the common for the epithet
" Wagnerian "to be applied to it. The term, it may be said,
was intended to be condemnatory, and it was applied with little
understanding as to its real meaning. The score of the Pecheurs
de perles contains several charming numbers; its dreamy
melodies are well adapted to fit a story laid in Eastern climes,
and the music reveals a decided dramatic temperament. Some
of its dances are now usually introduced into the fourth act of
Carmen. •

On the 3rd of June 1865 Bizet married a daughter of his old
master, Halevy. His second opera, La Jolie Fille de Perth,
produced at the Theatre Lyrique on 26th December 1867, was
scarcely a step in advance. The libretto was founded on Sir
Walter Scott's novel, but the opera lacks unity of style, and its
pages are marred by concessions to the vocalist. One number
has survived, the characteristic Bohemian dance which has been
interpolated into the fourth act of Carmen. In his third opera
Bizet returned to an oriental subject. Djamileh, a one-act opera,
given at the Opera Comique on the 22nd of May 1872, is certainly
one of his most individual efforts. Again were accusations of
Wagnerism hurled at the composer's head, and Djamileh did not
achieve the success it undoubtedly deserved. The composer was
more fortunate with the incidental music he wrote to Alphonse
Daudet's drama, L' Arlesienne, produced in October 1872.
Different numbers from this, arranged in the form of suites,
have often been heard in the concert-room. Rarely have poetry
and imagination been so well allied as in these exquisite pages,,
which seem to reflect the sunny skies of Provence.

Bizet's masterpiece, Carmen, was brought out at the Opera
Comique on the 3rd of March 187 5. It was based on a version by
Meilhac and Halevy of a study by Prosper Merimee— in which
the dramatic element was obscured by much descriptive writing.
The detection of the drama underlying this psychological
narrative was in itself a brilliant discovery, and in reconstructing
the story in dramatic form the authors produced one of the most
famous libretti in the whole range of opera. Still more striking
than the libretto was the music composed by Bizet, in which the
peculiar use of the flute and of the lowest notes of the harp
deserves particular attention.

On the 3rd of June, three months after the production of
Carmen in Paris, the genial composer expired after a few hours'
illness from a heart affection. Before dying he had the satisfaction

BJORNEBORG-^BLACHFORD

of knowing that Carmen had been accepted for production at
Vienna. After the Austrian capital came Brussels, Berlin and,
in 1878, London, when Carmen was brought out at Her Majesty's
theatre with immense success. The influence exercised by
Bizet on dramatic music has been very great, and may be
discerned in the realistic works of the young Italian school, as
well as in those of his own countrymen.

BJORNEBORG (Finnish, Port), a district town of Finland,
province of Abo-Bjorneborg, on the E. coast of the Gulf of
Bothnia, at the mouth of the Kumo. Lat. 5 1° 8' N., long. 46° o' E.
Pop. (1904) 16,053, mostly Swedes. Large vessels cannot enter
its roadstead, and stop at Rafso. The town has shipbuilding
wharves, machine works, and several tanneries and brick-works,
and has a total trade of over 16,000,000 marks, the chief export
being timber.

BJORNSON, BJORNSTJERNE (1832-1010), Norwegian poet,
novelist and dramatist, was born on the 8th of December 1832
at the farmstead of Bjorgen, in Kvikne, in Osterdal, Norway.
In 1837 his father, who had been pastor of Kvikne, was trans-
ferred to the parish of Noesset, in Romsdal; in this romantic
district the childhood of Bjornson was spent. After some
teaching at the neighbouring town of Molde, he was sent at the
age of seventeen to a well-known school in Christiania to study
for the university; his instinct for poetry was already awakened,
and indeed he had written verses from his eleventh year; He
matriculated at the university of Christiania in 1852, and soon
began to work as a journalist, especially as a dramatic critic. In
1857 appeared Synnove Solbakken, the first of Bjornson's peasant-
novels; in 1858 this was followed by Arne, in i860 by A Happy
Boy, and in 1868 by The Fisher Maiden. These are the most
important specimens of his bonde-fortaellinger or peasant-tales —
a section of his literary work which has made a profound im-
pression in his own country, and has made him popular through-
out the world. Two of the tales, Arne and Synnove Solbakken,
offer perhaps finer examples of the pure peasant-story than are
to be found elsewhere in literature.

Bjornson was anxious " to create a new saga in the light of the
peasant," as he put it, and he thought this should be done, not
merely in prose fiction, but in national dramas or folke-stykker .
The earliest of these was a one-act piece the scene of which is laid
in the 12th century, Between the Battles, written in 1855, but not
produced until 1857. He was especially influenced at this time
by the study of Baggesen and Oehlenschlager, during a visit to
Copenhagen 1856-1857. Between the Battles was followed by
Lame Hulda in 1858, and King Sverre in 1861. All these efforts,
however, were far excelled by the splendid trilogy of Sigurd the
Bastard, which Bjornson issued in 1862. This raised him to the
front rank among the younger poets of Europe. His Sigurd the
Crusader should be added to the category of these heroic plays,
although it was not printed until 1872.

At the close of 1857 Bjornson had been appointed director of
the theatre at Bergen, a post which he held, with much journal-
istic work, for two years, when he returned to the capital. From
i860 to 1863 he travelled widely throughout Europe. Early in
1865 he undertook the management of the Christiania theatre,
and brought out his popular comedy of The Newly Married and
his romantic tragedy of Mary Stuart in Scotland. Although
Bjornson has introduced into his novels and plays songs of
extraordinary beauty, he was never a very copious writer of
verse; in 1870 he published his Poems and Songs and the epic
cycle called Arnljot Gelline; the latter volume contains the
magnificent ode called "Bergliot," Bjornson's finest contribution
to lyrical poetry. Between 1864 and 1874, in the very prime of
life, Bjornson displayed a slackening of the intellectual forces
very remarkable in a man of his energy; he was indeed during
these years mainly occupied with politics, and with his business
as a theatrical manager. This was the period of Bjornson's most
fiery propaganda as a radical agitator. In 18 71 he began to
supplement his journalistic work in this direction by delivering
lectures over the length and breadth of the northern countries.
He possessed to a surprising degree the arts of the orator, com-
bined with a magnificent physical prestige. From 1873 to 1876

■ J 7

Bjornson was ahsent from Norway, and in the peace of voluntary
exile he recovered his imaginative powers. His new departure as
a dramatic author began with A Bankruptcy 'and The Editor in
1874, social dramas of an extremely modern and realistic cast.

The poet now settled on his estate of Aulestad in Gausdal.
In- 1877 he : published another ; novel, ' Magnhild — an imperfect
production, in which his ideas on social questions were seen to be
in a state of fermentation, and gave expression to his republican
sentiments in the polemical play called The King, to a later
edition of which he prefixed an essay on " Intellectual Freedom,"
in further explanation of his position. Captain Mansana, an
episode of the war of Italian independence, belongs to 1878.
Extremely anxious to obtain a full success on the stage, Bjornson
concentrated his powers on a drama of social life, Leonardo
(1879), which raised a violent controversy. A satirical play, The
New System, was produced a few weeks later. Although these
plays of Bjornson's second period were greatly discussed, none of
them (except A Bankruptcy) pleased on the boards. When once
more he produced a social drama, A .Gauntlet, in 1883, he was
unable to persuade any manager to stage it, except in a modified
form, though this play gives the full measure of his power as a
dramatist. In the autumn of the same year, Bjornson published
a mystical or symbolic drama Beyond our Powers, dealing with
the abnormal features of religious excitement with extraordinary
force; this was not acted until 1899, when it achieved a great
success.

Meanwhile, Bjornson's political attitude had brought upon
him a charge of high treason, and he took refuge for a time in
Germany, returning to Norway in 1882. Convinced that the
theatre was practically closed to him, he turned back to the
novel, and published in 1884, Flags are Flying in Town and Port,
embodying his theories on heredity and education. In 1889 he
printed another long and still more remarkable novel, In God's
Way, which is chiefly concerned with the same problems. The
same year saw the publication of a comedy, Geography and Love,
which continues to be played with success. A number of short
stories, of a more or less didactic character, dealing with startling
points of emotional experience, were collected in 1894; among
them those which produced the greatest sensation were Dust,
Mother's Hands, and Absalom's Hair. Later plays were a
political tragedy called Paul Lange and Tor a Parsberg (1898), a
second part of Beyond our Powers (1895), Laboremus (1901), At
Storhove (1902), and Daglannct (1904). In 1899, at the opening
of the National theatre, Bjornson received an ovation, and his
saga-drama of Sigurd the Crusader was performed.

A subject which interested him greatly, and on which he
occupied his indefatigable pen, was the question of the bonde-
maal, the adopting of a national language for Norway distinct
from the dansk-norsk (Dano-Norwegian), in which her literature
has hitherto been written. Bjpmson's strong and sometimes
rather narrow patriotism did not blind him to the fatal folly of
such a proposal, and his lectures and pamphlets against the maal-
straev in its extreme form did more than anything else to save the
language in this dangerous moment. Bjornson was one of the
original members of the Nobel committee, and was re-elected in
1900. In 1903 he was awarded the Nobel prize for literature.
Bjornson had done as much as any other man to rouse Norwegian
national feeling, but in 1903, on the verge of the rupture between
Norway and Sweden, he preached conciliation and moderation
to the Norwegians. He was an eloquent advocate of Pan-
Germanism, and, writing to the Figaro in 190S, he outlined a
Pan-Germanic alliance of northern Europe and North America.
He died on the 26th of April 1910.

See Bjornson's Samlede Vaerker (Copenhagen, 1900-1902, 1 1 vols.) ;
The Novels of Bjornstjerne Bjornson (1894, & c -)< edited by Edmund
Gosse; G. Brandes, Critical Studies (1899); E. Tissot, Le drame
norvegien (1893); C. D. 'af Wirsen, Kritiker (1901) ; Chr. Collin,
Bjornstjerne Bjornson (2 vols., German ed., 1903), the most complete
biography and criticism at present available; and B. Halvorsen,
Norsk Formatter Lexikon (1885). (E.G.)

BLACHFORD, FREDERIC ROGERS, Baron (1811-1889),
British civil servant, eldest son of Sir Frederick Leman Rogers,
7th Bart, (whom he succeeded in the baronetcy in 1851), was

* BLACK, : A.~^BDACK^ J.

born in London on the 31st of January 181 1. He was educated
at Eton and Oriel College, Oxford, where he had a brilliant
career, winning the Craven University scholarship, and taking
a double first-class in classics and mathematics. He became
a fellow of Oriel (1833), and won the Vinerian scholarship (1834),
and fellowship (1840). He was called to the bar in 1837, but
never practised. At school and at Oxford he was a contemporary
of W. E. Gladstone, and at Oxford he began a lifelong friendship
with J. H. Newman and R. W. Church; his classical and literary
tastes, and his combination of liberalism in politics with High
Church views in religion, together with his good social position
and interesting character, made him an admired member of their
circles. For two or three years (1841-1844) he wrote for The
Times, and he helped to found The Guardian in 1846; he also
did a good deal to assist the Tractarian movement. But he
eventually settled down to the life of a government official. He
began in 1844 as registrar of joint-stock companies, and in 1846
became commissioner of lands and emigration. Between 1857
and 1859 he was engaged in government missions abroad, con-
nected with colonial questions, and in i860 he was appointed
permanent under-secretary of state for the colonies. Sir Frederic
Rogers was the guiding spirit of the colonial office under six
successive secretaries of state, and on his retirement in 1871
was raised to the peerage as Baron Blachford of Wisdome, a
title taken from his place in Devonshire. He died on the 21st
of November 1889.

A volume of his letters, edited by G. E. Marindin (1896), contains
an interesting Life, partly autobiographical.

BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874), Scottish publisher, founder of
the firm of A. & C. Black, the son of a builder, was born in
Edinburgh on the 20th of February 1784. After serving his
apprenticeship to the bookselling trade in Edinburgh and
London, he began business for himself in Edinburgh in 1808.
By 1826 he was recognized as one of the principal booksellers
in the city; and a few years later he was joined in business by
his nephew Charles. The two most important events connected
with the history of the firm were the publication of the 7th, 8th
and 9th editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and the
purchase of the stock and copyright of the Waverley Novels.
The copyright of the Encyclopaedia passed into the hands of
Adam Black and a few friends in 1827. Ini85i the firm bought
the copyright of the Waverley Novels for £27,000; and in 1861
they became the proprietors of De Quincey's works. Adam
Black was twice lord provost of Edinburgh, and represented
the city in parliament from 1856 to 1865. He retired from
business in 1865, and died on the 24th of January 1874. He was
succeeded by his sons, who removed their business in 1895 to
London. There is a bronze statue of Adam Black in East
Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh.

See Memoirs of Adam Black, edited by Alexander Nicholson
(2nd ed., Edinburgh, 1885).

BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810-1883), American
lawyer and statesman, was born in Stony Creek township,
Somerset county, Pennsylvania, on the 10th of January 1810.
He was largely self-educated, and before he was of age was
admitted to the Pennsylvania bar. He gradually became one
of the leading American lawyers, and in 1851-1857 was a member
of the supreme court of Pennsylvania (chief-justice 1851-1854).
In 1857 he entered President Buchanan's cabinet as attorney-
general of the United States. In this capacity he successfully
contested the validity of the " California land claims " — claims
to about 19,000 sq. m. of land, fraudulently alleged to have
been granted to land-grabbers and others by the Mexican govern-
ment prior to the close of the Mexican War. From the 17 th of
December i860 to the 4th of March 1861 he was secretary of
state. Perhaps the most influential of President Buchanan's
official advisers, he denied the constitutionality of secession,
and urged that Fort Sumter be properly reinforced and defended.
" For . . . the vigorous assertion at last in word and in deed
that the United States is a nation," says James Ford Rhodes,
" for pointing out the way in which the authority of the Federal
government might be exercised without infringing on the rights _

of the states, the gratitude of the American people is due to
Jeremiah S. Black." He became reporter to the Supreme Court
of the United States in 1861, but after publishing the reports
for the years 1861 and 1862 he resigned, and devoted himself
almost exclusively to his private practice, appearing in such
important cases before the Supreme Court as the one known as
Ex-Parte Milligan, in which he ably defended the right of trial
by jury, the McCardle case and the United States v. Blyew et
al. After the Civil War he vigorously opposed the Congressional
plan of reconstructing the late Confederate states, and himself
drafted the message qi President Johnson, vetoing the Recon-
struction Act of the 2nd of March 1867. Black was also for a
short time counsel for President Andrew Johnson, in his trial
on the article of impeachment, before the United States Senate,
and for William W. Belknap (1829-1890), secretary of war from
1869 to 1876, who in 1876 was impeached on a charge of cor-
ruption; and with others he represented Samuel J. Tilden
during the contest for the presidency between Tilden and
Hayes (see Electoral Commission). He died at Brockie, Penn-
sylvania, on the 19th of August 1883.

See Essays and Speeches of Jeremiah S. Black, with a Biographical
Sketch (New York, 1885), by his son, C. F. Black.

BLACK, JOSEPH (1728-1799), Scottish chemist and physicist,
was born in 1728 at Bordeaux, where his father — a native of
Belfast but of Scottish descent — was engaged in the wine trade.
At the age of twelve he was sent to a grammar school in Belfast,
whence he removed in 1746 to study medicine in Glasgow.
There he had William Cullen for his instructor in chemistry, and
the relation between the two soon became that of professor and
assistant rather than of master and pupil. The action of lithon-
triptic medicines, especially lime-water, was one of the questions
of the day, and through his investigations of this subject Black
was led to the chemical discoveries associated with his name.
The causticity of alkaline bodies was explained at that time as
depending on the presence in them of the principle of fire,
"phlogiston"; quicklime, for instance, was chalk which had
taken up phlogiston, and when mild alkalis such as sodium or
potassium carbonate were causticized by its aid, the phlogiston
was supposed to pass from it to them. Black showed that on
the contrary causticization meant the loss of something, as
proved by loss of weight; and this something he found to be an
" air," which, because it was fixed in the substance before it was
causticized, he spoke of as " fixed air." Taking magnesia alba,
which he distinguished from limestone with which it had pre-
viously been confused, he showed that on being heated it lost
weight owing to the escape of this fixed air (named carbonic acid
by Lavoisier in 1 781), and that the weight was regained when
the calcined product was made to reabsorb the fixed air with
which it had parted. These investigations, by which Black not
only gave a great impetus to the chemistry of gases by clearly
indicating the existence of a gas distinct from common air, but
also anticipated Lavoisier and modern chemistry by his appeal
to the balance, were described in the thesis De humore acido a
cibis orto, et magnesia alba, which he presented for his doctor's
degree in 1754; and a fuller account of them was read before
the Medical Society of Edinburgh in June 1755, and published
in the following year as Experiments upon magnesia, quicklime
and some other alkaline substances.

It is curious that Black left to others the detailed study of this
" fixed air " he had discovered. Probably the explanation is
pressure of other work. In 1756 he succeeded Cullen as lecturer
in chemistry at Glasgow, and was also appointed professor of
anatomy, though that post he was glad to exchange for the chair
of medicine. The preparation of lectures thus took up much of
his time, and he was also gaining an extensive practice as a
physician. Moreover, his attention was engaged on studies which
ultimately led to his doctrine of latent heat. He noticed that
when ice melts it takes up a quantity of heat without undergoing
any change of temperature, and he argued that this heat, which
as was usual in his time he looked upon as a subtle fluid, must
have combined with the particles of ice and thus become latent
in its substance. This hypothesis he verified quantitatively

BLACK, W.— BLACKBIRD

by experiments, performed at the end of 176 1. In 1764, with the
aid of his assistant, William Irvine (1743-1787), he further
measured the latent heat of steam, though not very accurately.
This doctrine of latent heat he taught in his lectures from 1761
onwards, and in April 1762 he described his work to a literary
society in Glasgow. But he never published any detailed account
of it, so that others, such as J. A. Deluc, were able to claim the
credit of his results. In the course. of his inquiries he also noticed
that different bodies in equal masses require different amounts
of heat to raise them to the same temperature, and so founded
the doctrine of specific heats; he also showed that equal additions
or abstractions of heat produced equal variations of bulk in the
liquid of his thermometers. In 1766 he succeeded Cullen in the
chair of chemistry in Edinburgh, where he devoted practically
all his time to the preparation of his lectures. Never very
robust, his health gradually became weaker and ultimately he
was reduced to the condition of a valetudinarian. In 1795 he
received the aid of a coadjutor in his professorship, and two years
later he lectured for the last time. He died in Edinburgh on the
6th of December 1799 (not on the 26th of November as stated
in Robison's life).

As a scientific investigator, Black was conspicuous for the
carefulness of his work and his caution in drawing conclusions.
Holding that chemistry had not attained the rank of a science —
his lectures dealt with the "effects of heat and mixture" — he had
an almost morbid horror of hasty generalization or of anything
that had the pretensions of a fully fledged system. This mental
attitude, combined with a certain lack of initiative and the
weakness of his health, probably prevented him from doing full
justice to his splendid powers of experimental research. Apart
from the work already mentioned he published only two papers
during his life-time — "The supposed effect of boiling on water,
in disposing it to freeze more readily " {Phil. Trans., 1775), and
" An analysis of the waters of the hot springs in Iceland "
{Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed., 1794).

After his death his lectures were written out from his own notes,
supplemented by those of some of his pupils, and published with a
biographical preface by his friend and colleague, Professor John
Robison (1 739-1805), in 1803, as Lectures on the Elements of Chemistry ;
delivered in the University of Edinburgh.

BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898), British novelist, was born
at Glasgow on the 9th of November 1841. His early ambition
was to be a painter, but he made no way, and soon had recourse
to journalism for a living. He was at first employed in newspaper
offices in Glasgow, but obtained a post on the Morning Star in
London, and at once proved himself a descriptive writer of
exceptional vivacity. During the war between Prussia and-
Austria in 1866 he represented the Morning Star at the front,
and was taken prisoner. This paper shortly afterwards failed,
and Black joined the editorial staff of the Daily News. He also
edited the Examiner, at a time when that periodical was already
moribund. After his first success in fiction, he gave up journal-
ism, and devoted himself entirely to the production of novels.
For nearly thirty years he was successful in retaining the popular
favour. He died at Brighton on the 10th of December 1898,
without having experienced any of that reaction of the public
taste which so often follows upon conspicuous successes in fiction.
Black's first novel, James Merle, published in 1864, was a com-
plete failure; his second, Love or Marriage (1868), attracted
but very slight attention. In Silk Attire (1869) and Kilmeny
(1870) marked a great advance on his first work, but in 1871 A
Daughter of Heth suddenly raised him to the height of popularity,
and he followed up this success by a string of favourites. Among
the best of his books are The Strange Adventures of a Phaeton
(1872); A Princess of Thule (1874); Madcap Violet (1876);
Macleod of Dare (1878); White Wings (1880); Sunrise (1880);
Shandon Bells (1883); Judith Shakespeare (1884); White Heather
(1885) ; Donald Ross of Heimra (1891) ; Highland Cousins (1894) ;
and Wild Eelin (1898). Black was a thoroughgoing sportsman,
particularly fond of fishing and yachting, and his best stories
are those which are laid amid the breezy mountains of his native
land, or upon the deck of a yacht at sea off its wild coast. His

descriptions of such scenery are simple and picturesque* He
was a word-painter rather than a student of human nature.
His women are stronger than his men, and among them
are many wayward and lovable creatures; but subtlety of
intuition plays no part in his characterization. Black also
contributed a life of Oliver Goldsmith to the English Men of
Letters series.

BLACK APE, a sooty, black, short-tailed, and long-faced
representative of the macaques, inhabiting the island of Celebes,
and generally regarded as forming a genus by itself, under the
name of Cynopithecus niger, but sometimes relegated to the rank
of a subgenus of Macacus. The nostrils open obliquely at some
distance from the end of the snout, and the head carries a crest
of long hair. There are several local races, one of which was
long regarded as a separate species under the name of the Moor
macaque, Macacus maurus. (See Primates.)

BLACKBALL, a token used for voting by ballot against the
election of a candidate for membership of a club or other
association. Formerly white and black balls about the size of
pigeons' eggs were used respectively to represent votes for and
against a candidate for such election; and although this method
is now generally obsolete, the term " blackball " survives both
as noun and verb. The rules of most clubs provide that a stated
proportion of "blackballs " shall exclude candidates proposed
for election, and the candidates so excluded are said to have been
" blackballed "; but the ballot {q.v.) is now usually conducted
by a method in which the favourable and adverse votes are not
distinguished by different coloured balls at all. Either voting
papers are employed, or balls — of which the colour has no
significance — are cast into different compartments of a ballot-
box according as they are favourable or adverse to the candidate.

BLACKBERRY, or Bramble, known botanically as Rubus
fruticosus (natural order Rosaceae), a native of the north tem-
perate region of the Old World, and abundant in the British
Isles as a copse and hedge-plant. It is characterized by its
prickly stem, leaves with usually three or five ovate, coarsely
toothed stalked leaflets, many of which persist through the
winter, white or pink flowers in terminal clusters, and black or
red-purple fruits, each consisting of numerous succulent drupels
crowded on a dry conical receptacle. It is a most variable
plant, exhibiting many more or less distinct forms which are
regarded by different authorities as sub-species or species
In America several forms of the native blackberry, Rubus
nigrobaccus (formerly known as R. villosus), are widely cultivated;
it is described as one of the most important and profitable of
bush-fruits.

For details see F. W. Card in L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American
Horticulture (1900).

BLACKBIRD {Turdus merula), the name commonly given to
a well-known British bird of the Turdidae family, for which the
ancient name was ousel {q.v.), Anglo-Saxon osle, equivalent of
the German Amsel, a form of the word found in several old
English books. The plumage of the male is of a uniform black
colour, that of the female various shades of brown, while the bill
of the male, especially during the breeding season, is of a bright
gamboge yellow. The blackbird is of a shy and restless dis-
position, courting concealment, and rarely seen in flocks, or
otherwise than singly or in pairs, and taking flight when startled
with a sharp shrill cry. It builds its nest in March, or early in
April, in thick bushes or in ivy-clad trees, and usually rears at
least two broods each season. The nest is a neat structure of
coarse grass and moss, mixed with earth, and plastered internally
with mud, and here the female lays from four to six eggs of a
blue colour speckled with brown. The blackbird feeds chiefly
on fruits, worms, the larvae of insects and snails, extracting
the last from their shells by dexterously chipping them on
stones; and though it is generally regarded as an enemy of the
garden, it is probable that the amount of damage by it to the
fruit is largely compensated for by its undoubted services as
a vermin-killer. The notes of the blackbird are rich and full,
but monotonous as compared with those of the song-thrush.
Like many other singing birds it is, in the wild state, a

BLACK BUCK— BLACKCOCK

mocking-bird, having been heard to imitate the song of the
nightingale, the crowing of a cock, and even the cackling of a
hen. In confinement it can be taught to whistle a variety of
tunes, and even to imitate the human voice.

The blackbird is found in every country of Europe, even
breeding — although rarely— beyond the arctic circle, and in
eastern Asia as well as in North Africa and the Atlantic islands.
In most parts of its range it is migratory, and in Britain
every autumn its numbers receive considerable accession from
passing visitors. Allied species inhabit most parts of the world,
excepting Africa south of the Sahara, New Zealand and Australia
proper, and North America. In some of these the legs as well as
the bill are yellow or orange; and in a few both sexes are glossy
black. The ring-ousel, Turdus torquatus, has a dark bill and
conspicuous white gorget, whence its name. It is rarer and
more local than the common blackbird, and occurs in England
only as a temporary spring and autumn visitor.

BLACK BUCK (Antilope cervicapra), the Indian Antelope, the
sole species of its genus. This antelope, widely distributed in
India, with the exception of Ceylon and the region east of the
Bay of Bengal, stands about 32 in. high at the shoulder; the
general hue is brown deepening with age to black; chest, belly
and inner sides of limbs pure white, as are the muzzle and chin,
and an area round the eyes. The horns are long, ringed, and
form spirals with from three to five turns. The doe is smaller
in size, yellowish-fawn above, and this hue obtains also in young
males. These antelopes frequent grassy districts and are usually
found in herds. Coursing black-buck with the cheeta (q.v.) is
a favourite Indian sport.

BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN, Baron (1813-1896),
British judge, was born in Selkirkshire in 1813, and educated at
Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, taking high mathe-
matical honours in 1835. He was called to the bar in 1838, and
went the northern circuit. His progress was at first slow, and he
employed himself in reporting and editing, with T. F. Ellis, eight
volumes of the highly-esteemed Ellis and Blackburn reports.
His deficiency in all the more brilliant qualities of the advocate
almost confined his practice to commercial cases, in which he
obtained considerable employment in his circuit; but he con-
tinued to belong to the outside bar, and was so little known to
the legal world that his promotion to a puisne judgeship in the
court of queen's bench in 1859 was at first ascribed to Lord
Campbell's partiality for his countrymen, but Lord Lyndhurst,
Lord Wensleydale and Lord Cranworth came forward to defend
the appointment. Blackburn himself is said to have thought
that a county court judgeship was about to be offered him,
which he had resolved to decline. He soon proved himself one
of the soundest lawyers on the bench, and when he was promoted
to the court of appeal in 1876 was considered the highest
authority on common law. In 1876 he was made a lord of appeal
and a life peer. Both in this capacity and as judge of the queen's
bench he delivered many judgments of the highest importance,
and no decisions have been received with greater respect. In
1886 he was appointed a member of the commission charged
to prepare a digest of the criminal law, but retired on account
of indisposition in the following year. He died at his country
residence, Doonholm in Ayrshire, on the 8th of January 1896.
He was the author of a valuable work on the Law of Sales.

See The Times, 10th of January 1896; E. Manson, Builders 0} our
Law (1904).

BLACKBURN, JONATHAN (c. 1700-e. 1765), American
portrait painter, was born in Connecticut. He seems to have
been the son of a painter, and to have had a studio in Boston in
1 7 50-1 765; among his patrons were many important early
American families, including the Apthorps, Amorys, Bulfinches,
Lowells, Ewings, Saltonstalls, Winthrops, Winslows and Otises
of Boston. Some of his portraits are in the possession of the
public library of Lexington, Massachusetts, and of the Massa-
chusetts Historical Society, but most of them are privately
owned and are scattered over the country, the majority being in
Boston. John Singleton Copley was his pupil, and it is said
that he finally left his studio in Boston, through jealousy of

Copley's superior success. He was a good portrait painter, and
some of his pictures were long attributed to Copley.

BLACKBURN, a municipal, county aiid parliamentary
borough of Lancashire, England, 210 m. N.W. by N. from
London, and 24J N.NW. from Manchester, served by the
Lancashire & Yorkshire and the London & North Western
railways, with several lines from all parts of the county. Pop.
(1891) 120,064; (1901) 127,626. It lies in the valley of a stream
called in early times the Blackeburn, but now known as the
Brook. The hills in the vicinity rise to some 900 ft., and among
English manufacturing towns Blackburn ranks high in beauty of
situation. Besides numerous churches and chapels the public
buildings comprise a large town hall (1856), market house,
exchange, county courts municipal offices, chamber of commerce,
free library, and, outside the town, an infirmary. There are an
Elizabethan grammar school, in modern buildings (1884) and
an excellent technical school. The Corporation Park and Queen's
Park are well laid out, and contain ornamental waters. There is
an efficient tramway service, connecting the town with Darwen,
5 m. south. The cotton industry employs thousands of operatives ,
the iron trade is also very considerable, and many are engaged
in the making of machines; but a former woollen manufacture
is almost extinct. Blackburn's speciality in the cotton industry
is weaving. Coal, lime and building stone are abundant in the
neighbourhood. Blackburn received a charter of incorporation
in 1851, and is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42
councillors. The county borough was created in 1888. The
parliamentary borough, which returns two members, is co-
extensive with the municipal, and lies between the Accrington
and Darwen divisions of the county. Area, 7432 acres.

Blackburn is of considerable antiquity; indeed, the 6th
century is allocated to the original foundation of a church on the
site of the present parish church. Of another church on this site
Cranmer was rector after the Reformation. Blackburn was for
some time the chief town of a district called Blackburnshire, and
as early as the reign of Elizabeth ranked as a flourishing market
town. About the middle of the 17th century it became famous
for its " checks," which were afterwards superseded by a similar
linen-and-cotton fabric known as " Blackburn greys." In the,,
1 8th century the ability of certain natives of the town greatly
fostered its cotton industry; thus James Hargreaves here
probably invented his spinning jenny about 1764, though the
operatives, fearing a reduction of labour, would have none of it,
and forced him to quit the town for Nottingham. He was in the
employment of Robert Peel, grandfather of the prime minister
of that name, who here instituted the factory system, and as the
director of a large business carefully fostered the improvement
of methods.

See W. A. Abram, History of Blackburn (Blackburn, 1897).

BLACKBURNE, FRANCIS (1782-1867), lord chancellor of
Ireland, was born at Great Footstown, Co. Meath, Ireland, oil
the nth of November 1782. Educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, he was called to the English bar in 1805, and practised
with great success on the home circuit. Called to the Irish bar
in 1822, he vigorously administered the Insurrection Act in
Limerick for two years, effectually restoring order in the district.
In 1826 he became a serjeant-at-law, and in 1830, and again,
in 1841, was attorney-general for Ireland. In 1842 he became
master of the rolls in Ireland, in 1846 chief-justice of the queen's
bench, and in 1852 (and again in 1866) lord chancellor of Ireland.
In 1856 he was made a lord justice of appeal in Ireland. He is
remembered as having prosecuted O'Connell and presided at
the trial of Smith O'Brien. He died on the 17th of September
1867.

BLACKCOCK (Tetrao tetrix), the English name given to a bird
of the family Tetraonidae or grouse, the female of which is known
as the grey hen and the young as poults. In size and plumage
the two sexes offer a striking contrast, the male weighing about
4 lb, its plumage for the most part of a rich glossy black shot
with blue and purple, the lateral tail feathers curved outwards so
as to form, when raised,- a fan-like crescent, and the eyebrows
destitute of feathers and of a bright vermilion red. The female,

BLACK COUNTRY— BLACK FOREST

on the other hand, weighs only 2 lb, its plumage is of a russet
brown colour irregularly barred with black, and its tail feathers
are but slightly forked. The males are polygamous, and during
autumn and winter associate together, feeding in flocks apart
from the females; but with the approach of spring they separate,
each selecting a locality for itself, from which it drives off all
intruders, and where morning and evening it seeks to attract the
other sex by a display of its beautiful plumage, which at this
season attains its greatest perfection, and by a peculiar cry,
which Selby describes as " a crowing note, and another similar
to the noise made by the whetting of a scythe." The nest,
composed of a few stalks of grass, is built on the ground, usually

Blackcock.

beneath the shadow of a low bush or a tuft of tall grass, and here
the female lays from six to -ten eggs of a dirty-yellow colour
speckled with dark brown. The blackcock then rejoins his male
associates, and the female is left to perform the labours of
hatching and rearing her young brood. The plumage of both
sexes is at first like that of the female, but after moulting the
young males gradually assume the more brilliant plumage of
their sex. There are also many cases on record, and specimens
may be seen in the principal museums, of old female birds
assuming, to a greater or less extent, the plumage of the male.
The blackcock is very generally distributed over the highland
districts of northern and central Europe, and in some parts of
Asia. It is found on the principal heaths in the south of England,
but is specially abundant in the Highlands of Scotland.

BLACK COUNTRY, THE, a name commonly applied to a
district lying principally in S. Staffordshire, but extending into
Worcestershire and Warwickshire, England. This is one of the
chief manufacturing centres in the United Kingdom, and the
name arises from the effect of numerous collieries and furnaces,
which darken the face of the district, the buildings and the
atmosphere. Coal, ironstone and clay are mined in close
proximity, and every sort of iron and steel goods is produced.
The district extends 15 m. N. W. from Birmingham, and includes
Smethwick, West Bromwich, Dudley, Oldbury, Sedgley, Tipton,
Bilston, Wednesbury, Wolverhampton and Walsall as its most
important centres. The ceaseless activity of the Black Country
is most readily realized when it is traversed, or viewed from such
an elevation as Dudley Castle Hill, at night, when the glare of
furnaces appears in every direction. The district is served by
numerous branches of the Great Western, London & North
Western, and Midland railways, and is intersected by canals,
which carry a heavy traffic, and in some places are made to
surmount physical obstacles with remarkable engineering skill,
as in the case of the Castle Hill tunnels at Dudley. Among the
numerous branches of industry there are several characteristic
of certain individual centres. Thus, locks are a specialty at

Wolverhampton and Willenhall, and keys at Wednesfield;
horses' bits, harness-fittings and saddlery at Walsall and Blox-
wich, anchors and cables at Tipton, glass at Smethwick, and
nails and chains at Cradley.

BLACK DROP, in astronomy, an apparent distortion of the
planet Mercury or Venus at the time of internal contact with the
limb of the sun at the beginning or end of a transit. It has been
in the past a source of much perplexity to observers of transits,
but is now understood to be a result of irradiation, produced by
the atmosphere or by the aberration of the telescope.

BLACKFOOT (Siksika), a tribe and confederacy of North
American Indians of Algonquian stock. The name is explained
as an allusion to their leggings being observed by the whites to
have become blackened by marching over the freshly burned
prairie. Their range was around the headwaters of the Missouri,
from the Yellowstone northward to the North Saskatchewan and
westward to the Rockies. The confederacy consisted of three
tribes, the Blackfoot or Siksika proper, the Kaina and the
Piegan. During the early years of the 19th century the Black-
foots were one of the strongest Indian confederacies of the north-
west, numbering some 40,000. At the beginning of the 20th
century there were about 5000, some in Montana and some in
Canada.

See Jean L'Heureux, Customs and Religious Ideas of Blackfoot
Indians in J. A. I., vol. xv. (1886) ; G. B. Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge
Tales (1892); G. Catlin, North American Indians (1876); Handbook
of American Indians (Washington, 1907), under " Siksika."

BLACK FOREST (Ger. Schwarzwald; the Silva Marciana and
Abnoba of the Romans), a mountainous district of south-west
Germany, having an area of 1844 sq. m., of which about two-
thirds lie in the grand duchy of Baden and the remaining third
in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg. Bounded on the south and
west by the valley of the Rhine, to which its declivities abruptly
descend, and running parallel to, and forming the counterpart of
the Vosges beyond, it slopes more gently down to the valley of
the Neckar in the north and to that of the Nagold (a tributary of
the Neckar) on the north-east. Its total length is 100 m., and its
breadth varies from 36 m. in the south to 21 in the centre and 13
in the north. The deep valley of the Kinzig divides it laterally
into halves, of which the southern, with an average elevation of
3000 ft., is the wilder and contains the loftiest peaks, which again
mostly lie towards the western side. Among them are the Feld-
berg (4898 ft.), the Herzogenhorn (4600), the Blossling (4260) and
the Blauen (3820). The northern half has an average height of
2000 ft. On the east side are several lakes, and here the majority
of the streams take their rise. The configuration of the hills is
mainly conical and the geological formation consists of gneiss,
granite (in the south) and red sandstone. The district is poor in
minerals; the yield of silver and copper has almost ceased, but
there are workable coal seams near Offenburg, where the Kinzig
debouches on the plain. The climate in the higher districts is
raw and the produce is mostly confined to hardy cereals, such as
oats. But the valleys, especially those on the western side, are
warm and healthy, enclose good pasture land and furnish fruits
and wine in rich profusion. They are clothed up to a height of
about 2000 ft. with luxuriant woods of oak and beech, and above
these again and up to an elevation of 4000 ft., surrounding the
hills with a dense dark belt, are the forests of fir which have given
the name to the district. The summits of the highest peaks are
bare, but even on them snow seldom lies throughout the summer.

The Black Forest produces excellent timber, which is partly
sawn in the valleys and partly exported down the Rhine in logs.
Among other industries are the manufactures of watches, clocks,
toys and musical instruments. There are numerous mineral
springs, and among the watering places Baden-Baden and
Wildbad are famous. The towns of Freiburg, Rastatt, Offenburg
and Lahr, which lie under the western declivities, are the chief
centres for the productions of the interior.

The Black Forest is a favourite tourist resort and is opened up
by numerous railways. In addition to the main lines in the
valleys of the Rhine and Neckar, which are connected with the
towns lying on its fringe, the district is intersected by the

2 2

BLACK HAWK— BLACKIE

Schwarzwaldbahn from Offenburg to Singen, from which various
small local lines ramify.

BLACK HAWK [Ma'katawimesheka'ka, " Black Sparrow
Hawk"], (i 767-1838, American Indian warrior of the Sauk and
Fox tribes, was born at the Sauk village on Rock river, near the
Mississippi, in 1767. He was a member of the Thunder gens of
the Sauk tribej and, though neither an hereditary nor an elected
chief, was for some time the recognized war leader of the Sauk
and Foxes. From his youth he was intensely bloodthirsty and
hostile to the Americans. Immediately after the acquisition of
" Louisiana," the Federal government took steps for the removal
of the Sauk and Foxes, who had always been a disturbing element
among the north-western Indians, to the west bank of the
Mississippi river. As early as 1804, by a treaty signed at St
Louis on the 3rd of November, they agreed to the removal in
return for an annuity of $1000. British influences were still
strong in the upper Mississippi valley and undoubtedly led Black
Hawk and the chiefs of the Sauk and Fox confederacy to repudi-
ate this agreement of 1804, and subsequently to enter into the
conspiracy of Tecumseh and take part with the British in the war
of 18 1 2. The treaties of 1815 at Portage des Sioux (with the
Foxes) and of 1816 at St Louis (with the Sauk) substantially
renewed that of 1804. That of 1816 was signed by Black Hawk
himself, who declared, however, when in 1823 Chief Keokuk and
a majority of the two nations crossed the river, that the consent
of the chiefs had been obtained by fraud. In 1830 a final treaty
was signed at Prairie du Chien, by which all title to the lands of
the Sauk and Foxes east of the Mississippi was ceded to the
government, and provision was made for the immediate opening
of the tract to settlers. Black Hawk, leading the party in opposi-
tion to Keokuk, at once refused to accede to this cession and
threatened to retaliate if his lands Were invaded. This pre-
cipitated what is known as the Black Hawk War. Settlers began
pouring into the new region in the early spring of 1831, and Black
Hawk in June attacked several villages near the Illinois- Wisconsin
line. After massacring several isolated families, he was driven
off by a force of Illinois militia. He renewed his attack in the
following year (1832), but after several minor engagements, in
most of which he was successful, he was defeated (21st of July)
at Wisconsin Heights on the Wisconsin river, opposite Prairie du
Sac, by Michigan volunteers under Colonels Henry Dodge and
James D. Henry, and fleeing westward was again decisively
defeated on the Mississippi at the mouth of the Bad Axe river (on
the 1st and 2nd of August) by General Henry Atkinson. His
band was completely dispersed, and he himself was captured by
a party of Winnebagoes. At Fort Armstrong, Rock Island, on
the 21st of September, a treaty was signed, by which a large tract
of the Sauk and Fox territory was ceded to the United States;
and the United States granted to them a reservation of 400 sq. m.,
the payment of $20,006 a year for thirty years, and the settlement
of certain traders' claims against the tribe. With several
warriors Black Hawk was sent to Fortress Monroe, Virginia,
where he was confined for a few weeks; afterwards he was
taken by the government through the principal Eastern cities.
On his release he settled in 1837 on the Sauk and Fox reservation
on the Des Moines river, in Iowa, where he died on the 3rd of
October 1838.

See Frank E. Stevens, The Black Hawk War (Chicago, 1903) ;
R. G. Thwaites, " The Story of the Black Hawk War " in vol. xii.
of the Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin ; J. B.
Patterson, Life of Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak or Black Hawk (Boston, .
1834), purporting to be Black Hawk's story as told by himself; 1
and Benjamin Drake, Life of Black Hawk (Cincinnati, 1846).

BLACKHEATH, an open common in the south-east of London,
England, mainly in the metropolitan borough of Lewisham.
This high-lying tract was crossed by the Roman Watling Street
from Kent, on a line approximating to that of the modern
Shooter's Hill; and was a rallying ground of Wat Tyler (1381),
of Jack Cade (1450), and of Audley, leader of the Cornish rebels,
defeated and captured here by the troops of Henry VII. in 1497.
It also witnessed the acclamations of the citizens of London on
the return of Henry V. from the victory of Agincourt, the formal
meeting between Henry VIII. and Anne of Cleves, and that

between the army of the restoration and Charles II. The
introduction into England of the game of golf is traditionally
placed here in 1608, and attributed to King James I. and his
Scottish followers. The common, the area of which is 267 acres,
is still used for this and other pastimes. For the residential
district to which Blackheath gives name, see Lewisham.

BLACK HILLS, an isolated group of mountains, covering an
area of about 6000 sq. m. in the adjoining corners of South
Dakota and Wyoming, U.S.A. They rise on an average some
2000 ft. above their base, the highest peak, Harney, having an
altitude above the sea of 7216 ft. They are drained and in large
part enclosed by the North (or Belle Fourche) and South forks of
the Cheyenne river (at whose junction a fur-trading post was
established about 1830); and are surrounded by semi-arid,
alkaline plains lying 3000 to 3500 ft. above the sea. The mass
has an elliptical shape, its long axis, which extends nearly
N.N.W.-S.S.E., being about 120 m. and its shorter axis about
40 m. long. The hills are formed by a short, broad, anticlinal
fold, which is flat or nearly so on its summit. From this fold
the stratified beds have in large part been removed, the more
recent having been almost entirely eroded from the elevated
mass. The edges of these are now found encircling the mountains
and forming a series of fairly continuous rims of hogbacks.
The carboniferous and older stratified beds still cover the west
half of the hills, while from the east half they have been removed,
exposing the granite. Scientific exploration began in 1849, and
systematic geological investigation about 1875. Rich gold
placers had already been discovered, and in 1875 the Sioux
Indians within whose territory the hills had until then been
included, were removed, and the lands were open to white
settlers. Subsequently low-grade quartz mines were found and
developed, and have furnished a notable part of the gold supply
of the country (about $100,000,000 from 1875 to 1901). The
output is to-day relatively small in comparison with that of
many other fields, but there are one or two permanent gold mines
of great value working low-grade ore. The silver product from
1879 to 1901 was about $4,154,000. Deposits of copper, tin,
iron and tungsten have been discovered, and a variety of Other
mineral products (graphite, mica, spodumene, coal, petroleum,
&c). In sharp contrast to the surrounding plains the climate is
subhumid, especially in the higher Harney region. There is an
abundance of fertile soil and magnificent grazing land. A third
of the total area is covered with forests of pine and other trees,
which have for the most part been made a forest-reserve by the
national government. Jagged crags, : sudden abysses, magnificent
canyons, forests with open parks, undulating hills, mountain
prairies, freaks of weathering and erosion, and the enclosing lines
of the successive hog-backs afford scenery of remarkable variety
and wild beauty. There are several interesting limestone caverns,
and Sylvan Lake, in the high mountain district, is an important
resort.

See the publications of the United States Geological Survey
(especially Professional Paper No. 26, Economic Resources of the
Northern Black Hills, 1904), and of the South Dakota School of
Mines (Bulletin No. 4, containing a history and bibliography of
Black Hills investigations) ; also R. L. Dodge, The Black Hills:
A Minute Description . . . (New York, 1876).

BLACKIE, JOHN STUART (1809-1895), Scottish scholar and
man of letters, was born in Glasgow on the 28th of July 1809.
He was educated at the New Academy and afterwards at the
Marischal College, in Aberdeen, where his father was manager
of the Commerical Bank. After attending classes at Edinburgh
University (1825-1826), Blackie spent three years at Aberdeen
as a student of theology. In 1829 he went to Germany, and after
studying at Gottingen and Berlin (where he came under the
influence of Heeren, Ottfried Miiller, Schleiermacher, Neander
and Bockh) he accompanied Bunsen to Italy and Rome. The
years spent abroad extinguished his former wish to enter the
Church, and at his father's desire he gave himself up to the study
of law. He had already, in 1824, been placed in a lawyer's office,
but only remained there six months. By the time he was
admitted a member of the Faculty of Advocates (1834) he had
acquired a strong love of the classics and a taste for letters in

BLACK ISLE— BLACKMORE, SIR R.

general. A translation of Faust, which he published in 1834,
met with considerable success. After a year or two of desultory
literary work he was (May 1839) appointed to the newly-
instituted chair of Humanity (Latin) in the Marischal College.
Difficulties arose in the way of his installation, owing to the action
of the Presbytery on his refusing to sign unreservedly the Con-
fession of Faith; but these were eventually overcome, and he
took up his duties as professor in November 1841. In the
following year he married. • From the first his professorial
lectures were conspicuous for the unconventional enthusiasm
with which he endeavoured to revivify the study of the classics;
and his growing reputation, added to the attention excited by a
translation of Aeschylus which he published in 1850, led to his
appointment in 1852 to the professorship of Greek at Edinburgh
University, in succession to George Dunbar, a post which he con-
tinued to hold for thirty years. He was somewhat erratic in his
methods, but his lectures were a triumph of influential person-
ality. A journey to Greece in 1853 prompted his essay On the
Living Language of the Greeks, a favourite theme of his, especially
in his later years; he adopted for himself a modern Greek
pronunciation, and before his death he endowed a travelling
scholarship to enable students to learn Greek at Athens. Scottish
nationality was another source of enthusiasm with him; and in
this connexion he displayed real sympathy with Highland home
life and the grievances of the crofters. The foundation of the
Celtic chair at Edinburgh University was mainly due to his
efforts. In- spite of the many calls upon his time be produced
a considerable amount of literary work, usually on classical
or Scottish subjects, including some poems and songs of no mean
order. He died in Edinburgh on the 2nd of March 1895. Blackie
was a Radical and Scottish nationalist in politics, but of a
fearlessly independent type; he was one of the " characters "
of the Edinburgh of the day, and was a well-known figure as he
went about in his plaid, worn shepherd-wise, wearing a broad-
brimmed hat, and carrying a big stick. His published works
include (besides several volumes of verse) Homer and the Iliad
(1866), maintaining the unity of the poems; Four Phases of
Morals: Socrates, Aristotle, Christianity, Utilitarianism (1871);
Essay on Self-Culture (1874); Horae Hellenicae (1874); The
Language and Literature of the Scottish Highlands (1876); The
Natural History of Atheism (1877); The Wise Men of Greece
(1877); Lay Sermons (1881); Altavona (1882); The Wisdom
of Goethe (1883); The Scottish Highlanders and the Land Laws
(1885); Life of Burns (1888); Scottish Song (1889); Essays on
Subjects of Moral and Social Interest (1890); Christianity and
the Ideal of Humanity (1893). Amongst his political writings
may be mentioned a pamphlet On Democracy (1867), On Forms
of Government (1867), and Political Tracts (1868).

See Anna M. Stoddart, John Stuart Blackie (1895) ; A. Stodart-
Walker, Selected Poems of J. S. Blackie, with an appreciation (1896) ;
Howard Angus Kennedy, Professor Blackie (1895).

BLACK ISLE, The, a district in the east of the county of
Ross and Cromarty, Scotland, bounded N. by Cromarty Firth,
E. by Moray Firth, S. by Inner Moray Firth (or Firth of Inverness)
and Beauly Firth, and W. by the river Conon and the parish of
Urray. It is a diamond-shaped peninsula jutting out from the
mainland in a north-easterly direction, the longer axis, from
Muir of Ord station to the South Sutor at the entrance to Cromarty
Firth, measuring 20 m., and the shorter, from Ferryton Point
to CraigtonPoint, due north and south, 12 m., and it has a coast-
line of 52 m. Originally called Ardmeanach (Gaelic ard, height;
manaich, monk, " the monk's height," from an old religious house
on the finely-wooded ridge of Mulbuie), it derived its customary
name from the fact that, since snow does not lie in winter, the
promontory looks black while the surrounding country is white.
Within its limits are comprised the parishes of Urquhart and Logie
Wester, Killearnan, Knockbain (Gaelic cnoc, hill; bdn, white),
Avoch (pron. Auch), Rosemarkie, Resolis (Gaelic rudha or ros
soluis, " cape of the light ") or Kirkmichael and Cromarty. The
Black Isle branch of the Highland railway runs from Muir of Ord
to Fortrose; steamers connect Cromarty with Invergordon and
Inverness, and Fortrose with Inverness; and there are ferries,

on the southern coast, at North Kessock (for Inverness) and
Chanonry (for Fort George), and, on the northern coast, at
Alcaig (for Dingwall), Newhallpoint (for Invergordon), and
Cromarty (for Nigg). The principal towns are Cromarty and
Fortrose. Rosehaugh, near Avoch, belonged to Sir George
Mackenzie, founder of the Advocates' library in Edinburgh,
who earned the sobriquet of " Bloody " from his persecution of
the Covenanters. Redcastle, on the shore, near Killearnan
church, dates from n 79 and is said to have been the earliest
inhabited house in the north of Scotland. On the forfeiture of
the earldom of Ross it became a royal castle (being visited by
Queen Mary), and afterwards passed for a period into the hands
of the Mackenzies of Gairloch. The chief industries are agri-
culture — high farming flourishes owing to the great fertility of
the peninsula — sandstone-quarrying and fisheries (mainly from
Avoch) . The whole district, though lacking water, is picturesque
and was once forested. The Mulbuie ridge, the highest point
of which is 838 ft. above the sea, occupies the centre and is the
only elevated ground. Antiquarian remains are somewhat
numerous, such as forts and cairns in Cromarty parish, and
stone circles in Urquhart and Logie Wester and Knockbain
parishes, the latter also containing a hut circle and rock
fortress.

BLACKLOCK, THOMAS (1721-1791), Scottish poet, the
son of a bricklayer, was born at Annan, in Dumfriesshire, in
1721. When not quite six months old he lost his sight by small-
pox, and his career is largely interesting as that of one who
achieved what he did in spite of blindness. Shortly after his
father's death in 1740, some of Blacklock's poems began to be
handed about among his acquaintances and friends, who arranged
for his education at the grammar-school, and subsequently at
the university of Edinburgh, where he was a student of divinity.
His first volume of Poems was published in 1746. In 1754 he
became deputy librarian for the Faculty of Advocates, by the
kindness of Hume. He was eventually estranged from Hume,
and defended James Beattie's attack on that philosopher. Black-
lock was among the first friends of Burns in Edinburgh, being
one of the earliest to recognize his genius. He was in 1762
ordained minister of the church of Kirkcudbright, a position which
he soon resigned; in 1767 the degree of doctor in divinity was
conferred on him by Marischal College, Aberdeen. He died on
the 7th of July 1791.

An edition of his poems in 1793 contains a life by Henry Mackenzie.

BLACKMAIL, a term, in English law, used in three special
meanings, at different times. The usual derivation of the
second half of the word is from Norman Fr. maille (medalia; cf.
"medal"), small copper coin; the New English Dictionary
derives from " mail " (q.v.), meaning rent or tribute. (1) The
primary meaning of " blackmail " was rent paid in labour, grain
or baser metal (i.e. money other than sterling money), called
reditus nigri, in contradistinction to rent paid in silver or white
money (mailles blanches). (2) In the northern counties of Eng-
land (Northumberland, Westmorland and the bishopric of
Durham) it signified a tribute in money, corn, cattle or other
consideration exacted from farmers and small owners by free-
booters in return for immunity from robbers or moss-troopers.
By a statute of 1601 it was made a felony without benefit
of clergy to receive or pay such tribute, but the practice
lingered until the union of England and Scotland in 1707.
(3) The word now signifies extortion of money or property by
threats of libel, presecution, exposure, &c. See such headings
as Coercion, Conspiracy, Extortion, and authorities quoted
under Criminal Law.

BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD (c. 1650-1729), English phy-
sician and writer, was born at "Corsham, in Wiltshire, about
1650. He was educated at Westminster school and St Edmund
Hall, Oxford. He was for some time a schoolmaster, but finally,
after graduating in medicine at Padua, he settled in practice
as a physician in London. He supported the principles of the
Revolution, and was accordingly knighted in 1697. He held
the office of physician in ordinary both to William III. and
Anne, and died on the 9th of October 1729. Blackmore had a

BLAGKMORE, R. D.— BLACK ROD

passion for writing epics. Prince Arthur, an Heroick Poem in
X Books appeared in 1695, and was followed by six other long
poems before 1723. Of these Creation . . . (1712), a philo-
sophic poem intended to refute the atheism of Vanini, Hobbes
and Spinoza, and to unfold the intellectual philosophy of Locke,
was the most favourably received. Dr Johnson anticipated that
this poem would transmit the author to posterity " among the
first favourites of the English muse," while John Dennis went
so far as to describe it. as " a philosophical poem, which has
equalled that of Lucretius in the beauty of its versification, and
infinitely surpassed it in the solidity and strength of its reason-
ing." These opinions have not been justified, for the poem,
like everything else that Blackmore wrote, is dull and tedious.
His Creation appears in Johnson's and Anderson's collections
of the British poets. He left also works on medicine and on
theological subjects.

BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE (1825-1900), English
novelist, was born on the 7th of June 1825 at Longworth, Berk-
shire, of which village his father was curate in charge. He was
educated at Blundell's school, Tiverton, and Exeter College,
Oxford, where he obtained a scholarship. In 1847 he took a
second class in classics. Two years later he entered as a student
at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1852. His
first publication was a volume of Poems by Melanter (1854), which
showed no particular promise, nor did the succeeding volume,
Epullia (1855), suggest that Blackmore had the makings of a poet.
He was nevertheless enthusiastic in his pursuit of literature;
and when, a few years later, the complete breakdown of his health
rendered it clear that he must remove from London, he deter-
mined to combine a literary life in the country with a business
career as a market-gardener. He acquired land at Teddington,
and set earnestly to work, the literary fruits of his new surround-
ings being a translation of the Georgics, published in 1862. In
1864 he published his first novel, Clara Vaughan, the merits
of which were promptly recognized. Cradock Nowell (1866)
followed, but it was in 1869 that he suddenly sprang into fame
with Lorna Doone. This fine story was a pioneer in the romantic
revival; and appearing at a jaded hour, it was presently recog-
nized as a work of singular charm, vigour and imagination. Its
success could scarcely be repeated, and though Blackmore wrote
many other capital stories, of which the best known are The
Maid of Sker (1872), Chrislowell (1880), Perlycross (1894), Tales
from the Telling House (1896) and Dariel (1897), he will always
be remembered almost exclusively as the author of Lorna Doone.
He continued his quiet country life to the last, and died at
Teddington on the 20th of January 1900, in his seventy-fifth
year. Lorna Doone has the true out-of-door atmosphere, is shot
through and through with adventurous spirit, and in its dramatic
moments shows both vigour and intensity. The heroine, though
she is invested with qualities of faery which are scarcely human,
is an idyllic and haunting figure; and John Ridd, the bluff
hero, is, both in purpose and achievement, a veritable giant of
romance. The story is a classic of the West country, and the
many pilgrimages that are made annually to the Doone Valley
(the actual characteristics of which differ materially from the
descriptions given in the novel) are entirely inspired by the
buoyant imagination of Richard Blackmore. A memorial
window and tablet to his memory were erected in Exeter
cathedral in 1904.

BLACK MOUNTAIN, a mountain range and district on the
Hazara border of the North-West Frontier Province of India.
It is inhabited by Yusafzai Pathans. The Black Mountain itself
has a total length of 25 to 50 m., and an average height of 8000ft.
above the sea. It rises from the Indus basin near the village of
Kiara, up to its watershed by Bruddur; thence it runs north-
west by north to the point on the crest known as Chittabut.
From Chittabut the range runs due north, finally descending by
two large spurs to the Indus again. The tribes which inhabit
the western face of the Black Mountain are the Hassanzais (2300
fighting men), the Akazais ( 1165 fighting men ) and the Chagar-
zais (4890 fighting men), all sub-sections of the Yusafzai Pathans.
It was in this district that the Hindostani Fanatics had their

stronghold, and they were responsible for much of the unrest
on this part of the border.

The Black Mountain is chiefly notable for four British
expeditions : —

1. Under Lieut.-Colonel F. Mackeson, in 1852-53, against
the Hassanzais. The occasion was the murder of two British
customs officers. A force of 3800 British troops traversed their
country, destroying their villages and grain, &c.

2. Under Major-General A. T. Wilde, in 1868. The occasion
was an attack on a British police post at Oghi in the Agror Valley
by all three tribes. A force of 12,500 British troops entered the
country and the tribes made submission.

3. The First Hazara Expedition in 1888. The cause was the
constant raids made by the tribes on villages in British territory,
culminating in an attack on a small British detachment, in which
two English officers were killed. A force of 1 2,500 British troops
traversed the country of the tribes, and severely punished them.
Punishment was also inflicted on the Hindostani Fanatics of
Palosi.

4. The Second Hazara Expedition of 1891. The Black
Mountain tribes fired on a force within British limits. A force
of 7300 British troops traversed the country. The tribesmen
made their submission and entered into an agreement with
government to preserve the peace of the border.

The Black Mountain tribes took no part in the general frontier
rising of 1897, and after the disappearance of the Hindostani
Fanatics they sank into comparative unimportance . .

BLACKPOOL, a municipal and county borough and seaside
resort in the Blackpool parliamentary division of Lancashire,
England, 46 m. N. of Liverpool, served by the Lancashire &
Yorkshire, and London & North Western railways. Pop. (1891)
23,846; (1901) 47,346. The town, which is quite modern,
contains many churches and chapels of all denominations, a
town hall, public libraries, the Victoria hospital, three piers,
theatres, ball-rooms, and other places of public amusement,
including a lofty tower, resembling the Eiffel Tower of Paris.
The municipality maintains an electric tram service. There are
handsome promenades along the sea front, which command fine
views. Extensive works upon these, affording a sea front
unsurpassed by that of any English watering-place, were com-
pleted in 1905. The beach is sandy and the bathing good. The
borough was created in 1876 (county borough, 1904), and is
governed by a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area,
exclusive of foreshore, 3496 acres; including foreshore, 4244
acres.

BLACK ROD (more fully, " Gentleman Usher of the Black
Rod "), an official of the House of Lords, instituted in 1350. His
appointment is by royal letters patent, and his title is due to his
staff of office, an ebony stick surmounted with a gold lion. He is
a personal attendant of the sovereign in the Upper House, and
is also usher of the order of the Garter, being doorkeeper at
the meetings of the knights' chapter. He is responsible for the
maintenance of order in the House of Lords, and on him falls the
duty of arresting any peer guilty of breach of privilege or other
offence of which the House takes cognizance. But the duty
which brings him most into prominence is that of summoning the
Commons and their speaker to the Upper House to hear a speech
from the throne or the royal assent given to bills. If the
sovereign is present in parliament, Black Rod commands the
attendance of the gentlemen of the Commons, but when lords
commissioners represent the king, he only desires such attendance.
Black Rod is on such occasions the central figure of a curious
ceremony of much historic significance. As soon as the attend-
ants of the House of Commons are aware of his approach, they
close the doors in his face. Black Rod then strikes three times
with his staff, and on being asked " Who is there? " replies
" Black Rod." Being then admitted he advances to the bar of
the House, makes three obeisances and says, " Mr Speaker, the
king commands this honourable House to attend his majesty
immediately in the House of Lords." This formality originated
in the famous attempt of Charles I. to arrest the five members,
Hampden, Pym, Holies, Hesilrige and Strode, in 1642. Indignant

BLACK SEA— BLACKSTONE

at this breach of privilege, the House of Commons has ever since
maintained its right of freedom of speech and uninterrupted
debate by the closing of the doors on the king's representative.

BLACK SEA (or Euxine; anc. Pontus Euxinus ), 1 a body of
water lying almost entirely between the latitudes 41 and 45 N.,
but extending to about 47 N. near Odessa. It is bounded N. by
the southern coast of Russia; W. by Rumania, Turkey and
Bulgaria; S. and E. by Asia Minor. The northern boundary is
broken at Kertch by a strait entering into the Sea of Azov, and
at the junction of the western and southern boundary is the
Bosporus, which unites the Black Sea with the Mediterranean
through the Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles. The 100
fathom line is about 10 to 20 m. from the shore except in the
north-west corner between Varna and Sevastopol, where it
extends 140 m. seawards. The greatest depth is 1030 fathoms
(1227 Russian fathoms) near the centre, there being only one
basin. The steepest incline outside 100 fathoms is to the south-
east of the Crimea and at Amastra; the incline to the greater
depths is also steep off the Caucasus and between Trebizond and
Ba.tum. The conditions that prevail in the Black Sea are very
different from those of the Mediterranean or any other sea. The
existence of sulphuretted hydrogen in great quantities below 100
fathoms, the extensive chemical precipitation of calcium car-
bonate, the stagnant nature of its deep waters, and the absence of
deep-sea life are conditions which make it impossible to discuss it
along with the physical and biological conditions of the Mediter-
ranean proper.

The depths of the Black Sea are lifeless, higher organic life not
being known to exist below 100 fathoms. Fossiliferous remains
of Dreissena, Cardium and other molluscs have, however, been
dredged up, which help to show that conditions formerly existed
in the Black Sea similar to those that exist at the present day in
the Caspian Sea. According to N. Andrusov, when the union of
the Black Sea with the Mediterranean through the Bosporus took
place, salt water rushed into it along the bottom of the Bosporus
and killed the fauna of the less saline waters. This gave rise to
a production of sulphuretted hydrogen which is found in the
deposits, as well as in the deeper waters.

Observations in temperature and salinity have only been
taken during summer. During summer the surface salinity of
the Black Sea is from 1 ■ 70 to 2 -oo % down to 50 fathoms, whereas
in the greater depths it attains a salinity of 2-25%. The
temperature is rather remarkable, there being an intermediate
cold layer between 25 and 50 fathoms. This is due to the
sinking of the cold surface water (which in winter reaches
freezing-point) on to the top of the denser more saline water of
the greater depths. There is thus a minimum circulation in the
greater depths causing there uniformity of temperature, an
absence of the circulation of oxygen by other means than
diffusion, and a protection of the sulphuretted hydrogen from
the oxidation which takes place in homologous situations in the
open ocean. The temperature down to 25 fathoms is from 78-3°
to 46-2° F., and in the cold layer, between 25 and 50 fathoms, is
from 46-2° to 43-5° F., rising again in greater depths to 48- 2°F.

The Sea of Marmora may be looked upon as an arm of the
Aegean Sea and thus part of the Mediterranean proper. Its
salinity is comparable to that of the eastern basin of the Mediter-
ranean, which is greater than that of the Black Sea, viz. 4%.
Similar currents exist in the Bosporus to those of the Strait of
Gibraltar. Water of less salinity flows outwards from the Black
Sea as an upper current, and water of greater salinity from the
Sea of Marmora flows into the Black Sea as an under-current.
This under-current flows towards Cape Tarhangut, where it divides
into a left and right branch. The left branch is appreciably
noticed near Odessa and the north-west corner; the right branch
sweeps past the Crimea, strikes the Caucasian shore (where it
comes to the surface running across, but not into, the south-east
corner of the Black Sea), and finally disperses flowing westwards
along the northern coast of Asia Minor between Cape Jason and

1 The early Greek navigators gave it the epithet of axenus, i.e.
unfriendly to' strangers, but as Greek colonies sprang up on the
shores this was changed to euxinus, friendly to strangers.

Sinope. This current causes a warmer climate where it strikes.
So marked is this current that it has to be taken into account in
the navigation of the Black Sea.

The Sea of Azov is exceedingly shallow, being only about 6
fathoms in its deepest part, and it is largely influenced by the
river Don. Its water is considerably fresher than the Black Sea,
varying from 1-55 to o-68%. It freezes more readily and is not
affected by the Mediterranean current.

See N. Andrusov, " Physical Exploration of the Black Sea," in
Geographical Journal, vol. i. p. 49.

BLACK SEA (Russ. Chcrnomorskaya) , a military district ef
the province of Kuban, formerly an independent province Of
Transcaucasia, Russia; it includes the narrow strip of land
along the N.E. coast of the Black Sea from Novorossiysk to
the vicinity of Pitsunda, between the sea and the crest of the
main range of the Caucasus. Area, 2836 sq. m. Pop. (1897)
54,228; (1906, estimate) 71,900. It is penetrated by numerous
spurs of this range, which strike the sea abruptly at right angles
to the coast, and in many cases plunge down into it sheer. Owing
to its southern exposure, its sheltered position, and a copious
rainfall, vegetation, in part of a sub-tropical character, grows
in great profusion. In consequence, however, of the moun-
tainous character of the region, it is divided into a large number
of more or less isolated districts, and there is little intercourse
with the country north of the Caucasus, the passes over the range
being few and difficult (see Caucasus). But since the Russians
became masters of this region, its former inhabitants (Circassian
tribes) have emigrated in thousands, so that the country is now
only thinly inhabited. It is divided into three districts-
Novorossiysk, with the town (pop. in 1897, 16,208) of the same
name, which acts as the capital of the Black Sea district;
Velyaminovsk; and Sochi. Novorossiysk is connected by rail,
at the west end of the Caucasus, with the Rostov- Vladikavkaz
line, and a mountain road leadsirom Velyaminovsk (or Tuapse)
to Maikop in the province of Kuban.

BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM (1723-1780), English jurist,
was born in London, on the 10th of July 1723. His parents'
having died when he was young, his early education, under the
care of his uncle, Dr Thomas Bigg, was obtained at the Charter-
house, from which, at the age of fifteen, he was sent to Pembroke
College, Oxford. He was entered in the Middle Temple in 174 1.
In 1 744 he was elected a fellow of All Souls' College. From this
period he divided his time between the university and the
Temple, where he took chambers in order to attend the law
courts. In 1746 he was called to the bar. Though but little
known or distinguished as a pleader, he was actively 'employed*
during his occasional residences at the university, in taking part
in the internal management of his college. In May 1749, as a
small reward for his services, and to give him further oppor-
tunities of advancing the interests of the college, Blackstone was
appointed steward of its manors. In the same year, on the
resignation of his uncle, Seymour Richmond, he was elected
recorder of the borough of Wallingford in Berkshire. In 1750 he
became doctor of civil law. In 1753 he decided to retire from
London work to his fellowship and an academical life, still con-
tinuing the practice of his profession as a provincial counsel.

His lectures on the laws of England appear to have been an
early and favourite idea; for in the Michaelmas term immedi-
ately after he abandoned London, he entered on the duty of
reading them at Oxford; and we are told by the author of his
Life, that even at their commencement, the high expectations
formed from the acknowledged abilities of the lecturer attracted
to these lectures a very crowded class of young men of the first
families, characters and hopes. Bentham, however, declares
that he was a " formal, precise and affected lecturer — just what
you would expect from the character of his writings — cold,
reserved and wary, exhibiting a frigid pride." It was not till the
year 1758 that the lectures in the form they now bear were read
in the university. Blackstone, having been unanimously elected
to the newly-founded Vinerian professorship, on the 25th of
October read his first introductory lecture, afterwards prefixed
to the first volume of his celebrated Commentaries. It is doubtful

BLACK VEIL— BLAGKWATER

whether the Commentaries were originally intended for the
press; but many imperfect and incorrect copies having got into
circulation, and a pirated edition of them being either published
or preparing for publication in Ireland, the author thought
proper to print a correct edition himself, and in November 1765
published the first volume, under the title of Commentaries 011
the Laws of England. The remaining parts of the work were
given to the world in the course of the four succeeding years.
It may be remarked that before this period the reputation which
his lectures had deservedly acquired for him had induced him
to resume practice in London; and, contrary to the general order
of the profession, he who had quitted the bar for an academic life
was sent back from the college to the bar with a considerable
increase of business. He was likewise elected to . parliament,
first for Hindon, and afterwards for Westbury in Wilts; but in
neither of these departments did he equal the expectations which
his writings had raised. The part he took in the Middlesex
election drew upon him many attacks as well as a severe anim-
adversion from the caustic pen of " Junius." This circumstance
probably strengthened the aversion he professed to parliamentary
attendance, " where," he said, " amidst the rage of contending
parties, a man of moderation must expect to meet with no
quarter from any side." In 17 70 he declined the place of solicitor-
general; but shortly afterwards, on the promotion of Sir Joseph
Yates to a seat, in the court of common pleas, he accepted a seat
on the bench, and on the death of Sir Joseph succeeded him
there also. He died on the 14th of February 1780.

The design of the Commentaries is exhibited in his first Vinerian
lecture printed in the introduction to them. The author there
dwells on the importance of noblemen, gentlemen and educated
persons generally being well acquainted with the laws of the
country; and his treatise, accordingly, is as far as possible a
popular exposition of the laws of England. Falling into the
common error of identifying the various meanings of the word
law, he advances from the law of nature (being either the revealed
or the inferred will of God) to municipal law, which he defines to
be a rule of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power in a
state commanding what is right and prohibiting what is wrong.
On this definition he founds the division observed in the Com-
mentaries. The objects of law are rights and wrongs. Rights are
either rights of persons or rights of things. Wrongs are either
public or private. These four headings form respectively the
subjects of the four books, of the Commentaries.

Blackstone was by no means what would now be called a
scientific jurist. He has only the vaguest possible grasp of the
elementary conceptions of law. He evidently regards the law
of gravitation, the law of nature, and the law of England, as
different examples of the same principle — as rules of action or
conduct imposed by a superior power on its subjects. He
propounds in terms the doctrine that municipal or positive laws
derive their validity from their conformity to the so-called law
of nature or law of God. " No human laws," he says, " are of
any validity if contrary to this." His distinction between rights
of persons and rights of things, implying, as it would appear,
that things as well as persons have rights, is attributable to a
misunderstanding of the technical terms of the Roman law.
In distinguishing between private and public wrongs (civil
injuries and crimes) he fails to seize the true principle of the
division. Austin, who accused him of following slavishly the
method of Hale's Analysis of the Law, declares that he " blindly
adopts the mistakes of his rude and compendious model; missing
invariably, with a nice and surprising infelicity, the pregnant
but obscure suggestions which it proffered to his attention, and
which would have guided a discerning and inventive writer to
an arrangement comparatively just." By the want of precise
and closely-defined terms, and his tendency to substitute loose
literary phrases, he falls occasionally into irreconcilable contra-
dictions. Even in discussing a subject of such immense import-
ance as equity, he hardly takes pains to discriminate between
the legal and popular senses of the word, and, from the small
place which equity jurisprudence occupies in his arrangement,
he would scarcely seem to have realized its true position in the

law of England. Subject, however, to these strictures the
completeness of the treatise, its serviceable if not scientific order,
and the power of lucid exposition possessed by the author
demand emphatic recognition. Blackstone's defects as a jurist
are more conspicuous in his treatment of the underlying principles
and fundamental divisions of the law than in his account of its
substantive principles.

Blackstone by no means confines himself to the work of a
legal commentator. It is his business, especially when he touches
on the framework of society, to find a basis in history and reason
for all the most characteristic English institutions. There is not
much either of philosophy or fairness in this part of his work.
Whether through the natural conservatism of a lawyer, or
through his own timidity and subserviency as a man and a
politician, he is always found to be a specious defender of the
existing order of things. Bentham accuses him of being the
enemy of all reform, and the unscrupulous champion of every
form of professional chicanery. Austin says that he truckled
to the sinister interests and mischievous prejudices of power,
and that he flattered the overweening conceit of the English in
their own institutions. He displays much ingenuity in giving a
plausible form to common prejudices and fallacies; but it is by
no means clear that he was not imposed upon himself. More
undeniable than the political fairness of the treatise is its merits
as a work of literature. It is written in a most graceful and
attractive style, and although no opportunity of embellishment
has been lost, the language is always simple and clear. Whether
it is owing to its literary graces, or to its success in flattering the
prejudices of the public to which it was addressed, the influence
of the book in England has been extraordinary. Not lawyers
only, and lawyers perhaps even less than others, accepted it as
an authoritative revelation of the law. It performed for educated
society in England much the same service as was rendered to
the people of Rome by the publication of their previously
unknown laws. It is more correct to regard it as a handbook of
the law for laymen than as a legal treatise; and as the first and
only book of the kind in England it has been received with some-
what indiscriminating reverence. It is certain that a vast
amount of the constitutional sentiment of the country has been
inspired by its pages. To this day Blackstone's criticism of the
English constitution would probably express the most profound
political convictions of the majority of the English people.
Long after it has ceased to be of much practical value as an
authority in the courts, it remains the arbiter of all public dis-
cussions on the law or the constitution. On such occasions the
Commentaries are apt to be construed as strictly as if they were
a code. It is curious to observe how much importance is attached
to the ipsissima verba of a writer who aimed more at presenting
a picture intelligible to laymen than at recording the principles
of the law with technical accuracy of detail.

See also the article English Law.

BLACK VEIL, in the Roman Catholic Church, the symbol of
the most complete renunciation of the world and adoption of
a nun's life. On the appointed day the nun goes through
all the ritual of the marriage ceremony, after a solemn mass at
which all the inmates of the convent assist. She is dressed in
bridal white with wreath and veil, and receives a wedding-ring,
as spouse of the Church. Afterwards she presides at a wedding-
breakfast, at which a bride-cake is cut. She thus bids adieu
to all her friends, and having previously taken the white veil,
the betrothal, she now assumes the black, and for ever forswears
the world and its pleasures. Her hair is cut short, and her bridal
robes are exchanged for the sombre religious habit. Her Wedding-
ring, however, she continues to wear, and it is buried with her.

BLACKWATER, the name of a number of rivers and streams
in England, Scotland and Ireland. The Blackwater in Essex,
which rises near Saffron Walden, has a course of about 40 m. to
the North Sea. The most important river of the name is in
southern Ireland, rising in the hills on the borders of the counties
Cork and Kerry, and flowing nearly due east for the greater part
of its course, as far as Cappoquin, where it turns abruptly south-
ward, and discharges through an estuary into Youghal Bay.

BLACKWATER FEVER— BLADDER DISEASES

The length of its valley (excluding the lesser windings of the
river) is about 90 m., and the drainage area about 1300 sq. m.
It is navigable only for a few miles above the mouth, but its
salmon fisheries are both attractive to sportsmen and of consider-
able commercial value. The scenery of its banks is at many
points very beautiful.

BLACKWATER FEVER, a disease occurring in tropical
countries and elsewhere, which is often classed with malaria
(q.v.). It is characterized by irregular febrile paroxysms, accom-
panied by rigors, bilious vomiting, jaundice and haemoglobinuria
(Sambon). It has a wide geographical distribution, including
tropical Africa, parts of Asia, the West Indies, the southern
United States, and — in Europe — Greece, Sicily and Sardinia;
but its range is not coextensive with malaria. Malarial
parasites have occasionally been found in the blood. Some
authorities believe it to be caused by the excessive use of
quinine, taken to combat malaria. This theory has had the
support of Koch, but it is not generally accepted. If it were
correct, one would expect blackwater fever to be regularly
prevalent in malarial countries and to be more or less coextensive
with the use of quinine, which is not at all the case. It often
resembles yellow fever, but the characteristic black vomit of
yellow fever rarely occurs in blackwater fever, while the black
urine from which the latter derives its name is equally rare in
the former. According to the modern school of tropical para-
sitology, blackwater fever is neither a form of malaria nor
produced by quinine, but a specific disease due to a protozoal
parasite akin to that which causes the red water fever of cattle.

BLACKWELL, THOMAS (1701-1757), Scottish classical
scholar, was born at Aberdeen on the 4th of August 1701. He
took the degree of M.A. at the Marischal College in 17 18. He
was appointed professor of Greek in 1723, and was principal
of the institution from 1 748 until his death on the 8th of March
1757. In 1735 his first work, An Inquiry into the Life and
Writings of Homer, was published anonymously. It was re-
printed in 1736, and followed (in 1747) by Proofs of the Enquiry
into Homer's Life and Writings, a translation of the copious
notes in foreign languages which had previously appeared. This
work, intended to explain the causes of the superiority of Homer
to all the poets who preceded or followed him, shows considerable
research, and contains many curious and interesting details;
but its want of method made Bentley say that, when he had gone
through half of it, he had forgotten the beginning, and, when
he had finished the reading of it, he had forgotten the whole.
Blackwell's next work (also published anonymously in 1748)
was Letters Concerning Mythology. In 1752 he took the degree
of doctor of laws, and in the following year published the first
volume of Memoirs of the Court of Augustus; the second volume
appeared in 1755, the third in 1764 (prepared for the press, after
Blackwell's death, by John Mills) . This work shows considerable
originality and erudition, but is even more unmethodical than
his earlier writings and full of unnecessary digressions. Black-
well has been called the restorer of Greek literature in the north
of Scotland; but his good qualities were somewhat spoiled by
pomposity and affectation, which exposed him to ridicule. '

BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM (1776-1834), Scottish publisher,
founder of the firm of William Blackwood & Sons, was born of
humble parents at Edinburgh on the 20th of November 1776.
At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a firm of booksellers
in Edinburgh, and he followed his calling also in Glasgow and
London for several years. Returning to Edinburgh in 1804, he
opened a shop in South Bridge Street for the sale of old, rare
and curious books. He undertook the Scottish agency for John
Murray and other London publishers, and gradually drifted into
publishing on his own account, removing in 18 16 to Princes
Street. On the 1st of April 1817 was issued the first number of
the Edinburgh Monthly Magazine, which on its seventh number,
bore the name of Blackwood's as the leading part of the title.
" Maga," as this magazine soon came to be called, was the organ
of the Scottish Tory party, and round it gathered a host of
able writers. William Blackwood died on the 16th of September
1834, and was succeeded by his two sons, Alexander and Robert,

who added a London branch to the firm. In 1845 Alexander
Blackwood died, and shortly afterwards Robert.

A younger brother, John Blackwood (1818-1879), succeeded
to the business; four years later he was joined by Major William
Blackwood, who continued in the firm until his death in 1861.
In 1862 the major's elder son, William Blackwood (b. 1836),
was taken into partnership. John Blackwood, was a man of
strong personality and great business discernment; it was in the
pages of his magazine that George Eliot's first stories, Scenes
of Clerical Life, appeared. He also inaugurated the " Ancient
Classics for English readers " series. On his death Mr William
Blackwood was left in sole control of the business. With him
were associated his nephews, George William and J. H. Black-
wood, sons of Major George Blackwood, who was killed at
Maiwand in 1880.

See Annals of a Publishing House; William Blackwood and his
Sons . . . (1897-1898), the first two volumes of which were Written
by Mrs Oliphant; the third, dealing with John Blackwood, by his
daughter, Mrs Gerald Porter.

BLADDER (from A.S. blaeddre, connected with blawan,
to blow, cf. Ger. blase), the membranous sac in animals which
receives the urine secreted from the kidneys. The word is also
used for any similar sac, such as the gall-bladder, the swim-
bladder in fishes, or the small vesicle in various seaweeds.

BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES. The urinary
bladder in man (for the anatomy see Urinary System), being
the temporary reservoir of the renal secretion, and, as such,
containing the urine for longer or shorter periods, is liable to
various important affections. These are dealt with in the first
part of this article. The diseases of the prostate are so intimately
allied that they are best considered, as in the subsequent section,
as part of the same subject.

Diseases of the Bladder.

Cystitis, or inflammation of the bladder, which may be acute
or chronic, is due to the invasion of the mucous lining by micro-
organisms, which gain access either from the urethra,
the kidneys or the blood-stream. It is easy to see how c y stu,s -
the diplococci of gonorrhoea may infect the bladder-membrane by
direct extension of the inflammation, and how the bacilli which
are swarming in the neighbouring bowel may find access to the
urethra or bladder when the intervening tissues have been
rendered penetrable by a wound or by inflammation. Sometimes,
however, especially in the female, the germs from the large
intestine enter the bladder by way of the vulva and the urethra.

Any condition leading to disturbance of the function of the
bladder, such as enlargement of the prostate, stricture of the
urethra, stone, or injury, may cause cystitis by preparing the
way for bacillary invasion. The bacilli of tuberculosis and of
typhoid fever may set up cystitis by coming down into the
bladder from the kidneys with the urine, or they reach it by
the blood-stream, or invade it by the urethra. Another way of
cystitis being set up is by the introduction of the germs of
suppuration by a catheter or bougie sweeping them in from the
urethra; or the instrument itself may be unsterilized and dirty
and so may introduce them. It used formerly to be thought that
wet or cold was enough to cause inflammation of the bladder, but
the probability is that this acts only by lowering the resistance
of the lining membrane of the bladder, and preparing it for the
invasion of the germs which were merely waiting for an oppor-
tunity. In the same way, gout or injury may lead to the lurking
bacilli being enabled to effect their attack. But in every case
disease-germs are the cause of the trouble, and they may be found
in the urine. The first effect of inflammation is to render the
bladder irritable, so that as soon as a few drops of urine have
collected, the individual has intense or uncontrollable desire to
micturate. The effort may be very painful and may be accom-
panied by bleeding from the overloaded blood-vessels of the
inflamed membrane. In addition to blood, pus is likely to be
found in the urine, which by this time is alkaline and ammoniacal,
and teeming with micro-organisms. As regards treatment, the
patient should be at once sent to bed in a warm room, and should

BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES

sit several times a day in a very hot hip-bath. When he has got
back to bed, a fomentation under oil-silk, or some other water-
proof material, should be placed over the lower part of the
abdomen. The diet should be milk (diluted with hot or cold
water), barley-water, and bread and butter; no alcoholic drink
should be allowed. If the urine is acid, bicarbonate of soda may
be given, or citrate of soda; if alkaline, urotropine — a derivative
of formic aldehyde — may prove a useful urinary disinfectant. If
the straining and distress are great, a suppository of \ or \ a grain
of morphia may be introduced into the rectum every two or three
hours. The bowels must be kept freely open. If the urine is foul,
the bladder should be frequently washed out by a soft catheter
and two or three feet of india-rubber tubing with a funnel at the
other end, weak and abundant hot lotions of Sanitas or Condy's
fluid being used.

Chronic cystitis is the condition left when the acute symptoms
have passed away, but it is liable at any moment to resume the
acute condition. If the cystitis is very intractable, refusing to
yield to hot irrigations, and to washings with nitrate of silver
lotion, it may be advisable to open the bladder from the front,
and to explore, treat, drain and rest it.

In tuberculous cystitis there is added to the symptoms the
discovery of the bacilli of tuberculosis in the urine, and cysto-
scopic examination may reveal the presence of tubercles of the
mucous membrane or even of ulceration. The patient is probably
losing weight, and he may present foci of tuberculosis at the back
of the testicle, the lung or kidney, or in a joint or bone, or in a
lymphatic gland. Treatment is rebellious and unpromising.
Washings and lotions give but temporary relief, and if the
bladder is opened for rest, and for a more direct treatment, the
germs of suppuration may enter, and, working in conjunction
with the bacilli, may cause great havoc. Koch's tuberculin
treatment should certainly be given a trial. This consists of the
injection into the body of an emulsion of dead tubercle bacilli
which have been sterilized by heat. As a result of this injection
the blood sets to work to form an " opsonin " — a protective
material which so modifies the disease-germs as to render them
attractive to the white corpuscles of the patient's blood (phago-
cytes), which then seize upon and destroy them. Sir A. E.
Wright has devised a delicate method of examination of the blood
(the calculation of the opsonic index) which tells when the
tuberculin injections should be resorted to and when withheld
(see Blood).

Calculi and Gravel. — Uric acid is deposited from the urine either
as small crystals resembling cayenne pepper, or else, in combina-
tion with soda and ammonia, as an amorphous " brick-
Stone. ( j ust „ ^ epos j tj w hich, on cooling, leaves a red stain on
the bottom of the vessel, soluble in hot water. These substances
are derived from the disintegration of nitrogenized food taken in
excess of demand, and from the breaking down of the human
tissues. They occur therefore in fevers, in wasting diseases, and
in the normal subject after excessive muscular exercises, especially
if these exercises have been accompanied with so much perspira-
tion that the excess of water from the blood has escaped by the
skin rather than by the kidneys. The abundance of this deposit
is in accordance with the amount of heat developed and work
done in the body, and corresponds with the dust and ashes raked
out of the fire-box of the locomotive after a long run. But
supposing that the uric acid debris continues to be excessive, the
risk of the formation of renal qx vesical calculi becomes consider-
able, and it may be advisable to place the patient on a restricted
nitrogenized diet, to induce him to drink large quantities of water,
and to keep his bowels so loose with watery laxatives, such as
Epsom salts or sulphate of soda, that the waste products of his
body are made to escape by the bowels rather than by the kidneys.
In addition to the salts just mentioned, an occasional dose of blue
pill will prove helpful. A course of treatment at Contrex6ville
or Carlsbad may be taken with advantage.

Alkaline urine is unable to hold the phosphates of ammonia and
magnesia in solution, so they are deposited in abundance either in
the kidney or bladder. If the voided urine is allowed to stand in a
tall glass they sink to the bottom with pus and mucus in a cloudy

deposit. To remedy this condition it is necessary to treat the
cystitis with which the bacterial decomposition of the urine is
associated. It may be that a calculus of acid urine, such as one
of uric acid or oxalate of lime, has been resting in the bladder and
keeping up incessant irritation, and that the micro-organisms of
decomposition or suppuration have found their way to the mucous
lining of the bladder from either the bowel, the urethra or the
blood-stream; undergoing cultivation there they break up the
urea into carbonate of ammonia and so render the urine alkaline.
This alkaline urine deposits its phosphates, which light upon the
calculus and encrust it with a mortary shell, which may go on
increasing in size until it may even fill the bladder. Sometimes
the nucleus of a calculus is a chip of bone or a blood-clot, or some
foreign substance which has been introduced into the bladder.
Sooner or later the urine becomes alkaline and the calculus is
encrusted with lime salts. .

When urine contains a larger amount of chemical constituents
than it can conveniently hold in solution, a certain quantity crys-
tallizes out, and may be deposited in the kidney or in the bladder.
If the crystals run together in the kidney the resulting concretion
may either remain in that organ or may find its way into the
bladder, where it may remain to form the nucleus of a larger
vesical calculus, or, especially in the case of females, it may,
while still small, escape from the bladder during micturition.

In children, in whom there is a rapid disintegration of nitro-
genized tissues, a uric acid calculus in escaping from the bladder
may block the urethra and give rise to sudden retention of urine.
On introducing a metal "sound," the surgeon may strike the
stone, and if it happens to be near the bladder he may push it
back and subsequently remove it by crushing. But if it has made
its way some distance along the urethra, so that he can feel it
from the outside, he should remove it by a clean incision.

A stone in the bladder worries the nerves of the mucous
membrane, and, giving them the impression that the bladder
contains much water, causes the desire and need for micturition
to be constant. The irritation causes an excessive secretion of
mucus, just as a piece of grit under the eyelid causes a constant
running from the eye. So the urine, if allowed to stand, gives
a copious deposit. During micturition the contracting bladder
bruises its congested blood-vessels against the stone, so that
towards the end of micturition blood appears in the urine.
Lastly, cystitis occurs, and the urine contains fetid pus. A
stone in the bladder gives rise to pain at the end of the penis,
and it is apt suddenly to stop the flow of urine during micturition.

The association of any of these symptoms leads the surgeon
to suspect the presence of a stone in the bladder, and he confirms
his suspicions by introducing a slender steel rod, a " sound,"
by which he strikes and feels the stone. Further confirmation
may be obtained by the help of the X-rays, or, in the adult, by
using a cystoscope. In a child the stone may often be felt
by a finger in the rectum, the front of the bladder being
pressed by a hand on the lower part of the abdomen. The
cystoscope is a straight, hollow metal tube about the size
of a long cedar pencil, which the surgeon introduces into the
adult bladder, which has already been filled with warm boracic
lotion. Down the tube run two fine wires which control a minute
electric lamp at the bladder end of the instrument. At that end
also is a small glass window which prevents the fluid escaping
by the tube, and also a prism; at the other end of the tube is
an eye-piece. By the use of this slender speculum the practised
surgeon can recognize the presence of tubercle or tuberculous
ulceration of the bladder, stone, or other foreign material, and
innocent or malignant growths. He can also watch the urine
entering the bladder by the openings of the ureters, and deter-
mine from which kidney blood or pus is coming.

The treatment of stone in the bladder is governed by various
conditions. Speaking generally, the surgeon prefers to introduce
a lithotrite and crush the stone into small fragments, and then
to flush out the fragments by using a full-sized, hollow metal
catheter and an india-rubber wash-bottle. Even in children
this operation may generally be adopted with success, the stone
being crushed to atoms and the fragments being washed out to

BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES

the last small chip. But if the stone is a very hard one (as are
some of the oxalate of lime calculi), or if it is very large, or if
the bladder or the prostate gland is in a state of advanced
disease, or if the urethra is not roomy enough to admit instru-
ments of adequate calibre, the crushing operation (lilholrity)
must be deemed unsuitable, and the stone must be removed by
a cutting operation {lithotomy) .

Lithotomy. — Cutting for stone has been long practised; but
up to the beginning of the 19th century it was performed only
by a few men, who, bolder than their contemporaries, had
specially worked at that operation and had attained celebrity
as skilful lithotomists. Patients went long distances to be
operated on by them, and certain of the older surgeons, as
William Cheselden, performed a large number of operations
with most excellent results. The operation was by an incision
from the perineum, and is ordinarily spoken of as lateral litho-
tomy. It was splendidly designed, and gave good results,
especially in children. But it is now a thing of the past, having
almost entirely given place to the high or supra-pubic operation.
In the high operation the patient, being duly prepared, is placed
upon his back and the bladder is washed out with hot boracic
lotion, and when the lotion returns quite clean a final injection
is made until the bladder is felt rising above the pubes. Then
the india-rubber tube is removed from the silver catheter by
which the injection has been made, and the end of the catheter
is plugged by a spigot. An incision is then made in the middle
line of the abdomen over the bladder region. The incision must
be kept as low as possible, so that the bladder may be reached
below the peritoneum, which, higher up, gives it an external,
serous coat. As the bladder is approached, a good many veins
are seen to be in the way, some of which have to be wounded.
The bladder-wall is recognized by its coarse network of pale
muscular fibres, through which, on each side of the middle line, a
strong suture is passed, so that when the bladder is opened and
the lotion comes rushing out, the opening which has been made
into the bladder may not sink into the depths of the pelvis. A
finger introduced into the bladder makes out the exact size and
position of the stone, or stones, and the removal is effected
by special forceps. Bleeding having ceased, the bladder-wound
;ls partly or entirely closed by sutures an'd allowed to fall into
the pelvis, the catheter having been removed. It is advisable
to leave a drainage tube in the abdominal wound for a while,
so that if urine leaks from the bladder-wound it may find a
ready escape to the dressings.

Litholapaxy. — Lithotrity consists of two parts — the crushing
of the stone, and the removal of the detritus. The two stages
are now carried out at one " sitting," without an interval being
allowed between them, as was formerly the practice, and the
term " litholapaxy " designates this method. The patient
having been anaesthetized, 10 oz. of hot boracic lotion are in-
jected, and the crushing instrument, the lithotrite, is then passed
into the bladder. The lithotrite has two blades, a " male " and
a " female," the latter fenestrated, the former solid with its sur-
face notched. When the stone is fixed between the blades the
screw is used, and great pressure is applied evenly, gradually
and continuously to the stone. The lithotrite is made of very
tough steel, so that hard stones may be crushed without danger
of the instrument breaking or bending. Care must be taken not
to catch the bladder-wall with the lithotrite. This danger is
avoided by raising the point of the lithotrite immediately after
grasping the stone and before crushing. The stone breaks into
two or more pieces, and these fragments must be crushed, one
by one, until they are powdered fine enough to escape by the
large evacuating catheter. If the stone be large and hard, half
an hour or longer may be required to crush it sufficiently fine.
When the surgeon fails to catch any more large pieces, the pre-
sumption is that the stone has been thoroughly broken up.
The lithotrite is then withdrawn and the detritus is washed out
by an " aspirator," which consists of a stiff elastic ball which is
connected with a trap, into which fragments of stone fall so as not
to pass out on the instrument being used at later periods in the
operation. A large catheter, with the eye very near the end of

the short curve, is passed into the bladder; the aspirator, full
of boracic lotion, is attached to the catheter, and a few ounces
of the fluid are expressed from the aspirator into the bladder by
squeezing the rubber ball. When the pressure is taken off the
ball, it dilates and draws the fluid out of the bladder, and with
it some of the detritus, which falls into the trap. This is re-
peated until all the fragments have been removed. After the
operation the patient sometimes suffers from discomfort. His
urine should be drawn off by a soft catheter at regular intervals
for a few days. If the pain be severe, it can generally be relieved
by fomentations. The patient must be kept in bed after the
operation, and in cases where the stone has been large and the
bladder irritable, the surgeon should insist on his remaining
there for at least a week; in those cases which go on favourably
the patients are soon able to perform their ordinary duties.
Fatal terminations, however, do now and again occur from sup-
pression of urine, the result of the old-standing kidney disease
which so often complicates these cases.

To Brigade-Surgeon Lieutenant-Colonel Dennis Francis
Keegan, of the Indian Medical Service, is due the fact that the
operation of crushing and promptly removing all fragments of
a vesical calculus is as well suited for boys as for men. In entire
opposition to long-standing European prejudices, Keegan's
operation is now firmly and permanently established. The old
operation (Cheselden's) of cutting a stone out through the
bottom of a boy's bladder is now seldom resorted to, and if a
stone in a boy is found too large or too hard to lend itself to
the crushing operation, it is removed by a vertical incision
through the lower part of the anterior wall of the abdomen, as
described above. For a successful performance of the crushing
operation in a boy a small lithotrite has, of course, to be used,
and it must be of the very best English make. The operation
has to be done with the utmost gentleness and thoroughness,
not a particle of the crushed stone being left in the bladder,
since otherwise the piece left becomes the nucleus of a fresh stone
and the trouble recurs.

The treatment of vesical calculi by other means than operative
surgery is of little value. Attempts have been made to dissolve
them by internal remedies, or by the injection of chemical
agents into the bladder; but, although such methods have for
a time been apparently successful, they have invariably been
found worthless for removing calculi once actually formed/
Nevertheless, much can be done towards preventing the formation
of calculi in those who have a tendency to their formation, by
attention to diet, by taking proper exercise, and by the internal
administration of drugs.

Rupture of the bladder may be caused by a kick or blow over the
upper part of the abdomen, or by a wheel passing over it; or it
may be a complication of fracture of the pelvis. If the rupture is in
that part of the bladder which is uncovered by the peritoneum, the
extravasated urine may be cut down upon and let out with good
prospect of success; but if the rupture is in the upper or hinder part
of the bladder the urine is let loose into the general peritoneal cavity
and sets up peritonitis, which is more than likely to prove fatal.
If the surgeon knows that the bladder is ruptured he should operate
at once in order to provide escape for the urine, and also to sew up
the rent. If the possibility of the bladder being ruptured be even
suspected, the surgeon should pass a catheter. Perhaps he draws
off an ounce or two of blood-stained urine. This makes him doubly
suspicious, so he injects into the bladder five, eight or ten ounces
of warm boracic lotion, and, leaving it there for a few minutes, he
measures the amount which he is able afterwards to withdraw; if
he finds that a certain amount is lost he is assured that a leakage
has taken place and he at once proceeds to operate. If only the
diagnosis is made promptly, and the operation is at once undertaken,
the outlook is not unfavourable. A generation or so back nearly all
the cases of rupture of bladder ended fatally.

Villous disease of the bladder is innocent; that is to say, it does
not spread to the neighbouring structures or implicate the lymphatic
glands. The villi are slender, branched, filamentous processes which,
springing from the floor of the bladder, float in the urine like seaweed.
They are freely supplied with blood-vessels, so that when a piece,
of a villus is broken off there is likely to be blood in the urine. Indeed,
painless haemorrhage is one of the characteristic features of the
disease, and when fragments of the " seaweed " are found in the
urine the diagnosis is clear. If the bladder is opened from the front,
as already described, the villi may be nipped off by special forceps
and the disease permanently cured.

3 o

BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES

Malignant disease of the bladder is almost always the warty form
of cancer known as epithelioma. It springs as a sessile growth
from the mucous membrane of the floor near the opening of one of
the ureters, and, worrying the sensory nerves, causes irritability of
the bladder and incontinence of urine. In due course septic germs
reach the bladder, either from the urethra, the bowel, the kidneys
or the blood-stream, and cystitis sets in. When ulceration has taken
place, blood occurs in the urine, and the patient — generally beyond
middle age — suffers dull or lancinating pains. Eventually the
rectum may also be involved and the distress becomes extreme.
The presence of the growth may be determined by sounding the
bladder, by the cystoscope, and by the finger in the rectum. If
the growth invades the outlet, retention of urine may occur, and the
surgeon may be compelled to open the bladder from the front of the
abdomen. In cases where operation is out of the question, washing
the bladder with hot boracic lotion may give great relief. The
treatment of cancer of the bladder by operation is, as a rule, un-
satisfactory, because of the close proximity of the growth to the
ureters and to the rectum. If, however, the disease were recognized
early and had not invaded the neighbouring structures, and if it
were upon the upper or the anterior part of the bladder, its removal
might be hopefully undertaken.

Hypertrophy and Dilatation. — When there is long-continued
obstruction to the flow of urine, as in stricture of the urethra, or
enlargement of the prostate, the bladder-wall becomes much
thickened, the muscular fibres increasing both in size and number;
the condition is known as " hypertrophy." Hypertrophy may be
accompanied by dilatation of the bladder, a condition which the
bladder may assume when the voiding of its contents is interfered
with for a length of time.

Paralysis of the bladder is a want of contractile power in the
muscular fibres of the bladder-wall. It may result from injuries
whereby the spinal cord is lacerated or pressed upon, so that the
micturition centre, which is situated in the lumbar region, is thrown
out of working order. The result may be either retention or in-
continence of urine ; sometimes there is at first retention, which
later is followed by incontinence. Paralysis is also met with in
certain nervous diseases, as in locomotor ataxia, and in various
cerebral lesions, as in apoplexy.

Atony of the bladder is a paresis or partial paralysis. It is due
to a want of tone in the muscular fibres, and is frequently the result
of over-distension of the bladder, such as may occur in cases of
enlargement of the prostate. The patient is unable to empty the
bladder, and the condition of atony gets increasingly worse.

In both paralysis and atony the indication is carefully to
prevent over-distension by the urine being retained too long, and
at the same time to treat by appropriate means the cause which
has produced or is keeping up the condition.

Incontinence of urine may occur in the adult or in the child, but
is due to widely different causes in the two cases. In the child it
may be simply a bad habit, the child not having been properly
trained; but more frequently there is a want of control in the
micturition-centre, so that the child passes its water unwittingly,
especially during the night. In adults it is not so much a condition
of incontinence in the sense of water being passed against the will,
but is a suggestion that the bladder is already full, the water which
passes being the overflow from a too full reservoir. It is usually
caused by an obstruction external to the bladder, e.g. enlarged pro-
state or stricture of the urethra; a calculus may produce the con-
dition. In the child an attempt mustbe made to improve the tone
of the micturition-centre by the use of belladonna or strychnine
internally, and of a blister or faradism externally over the lumbar
region, and every effort should be made to train the child to pass
water at stated times and regular intervals. In the adult the cause
which produces the over-distension must be removed if possible;
but, as a rule, the patient has to be provided with a catheter, which
he can pass before the bladder has filled to overflowing. A soft
flexible catheter should be given in preference to a rigid or semi-
rigid one. The best form is the red-rubber catheter, and he should
be taught the need of keeping it absolutely clean. In the case of
children incontinence of urine means irritability; in adults it means
overflow.

The condition termed by Sir James Paget stammering micturition
is analogous to speech stammering, and occurs in those who are
nervous and easily put out. It would seem to be due to the sphincter
of the bladder not relaxing synchronously with the contraction of the
detrusor, and is sometimes caused by external irritation, such as
preputial adhesions. Occasionally not a drop of urine can be passed,
or a little passes and then a sudden stoppage occurs; the more the
patient strains the worse he becomes, until at last there is complete
retention of urine. The trouble can sometimes be cured by the
removal of irritating causes, and in these cases, as well as in those in
which no such cause can be discovered, care should be taken to avoid
those difficulties which have given rise to the patient's worst failures.
If at any time he should fail to perform the act of micturition, he
ought not to strain, but should quietly wait for a little before making
any further effort. Regularity in the times of making water is also
of much importance.

Retention of urine may occur in paralysis of the bladder, or in
conditions where the patient is suffering from an illness which blunts

the nervous sensibility, such as apoplexy, concussion of the brain,
or typhoid fever. It is, however, more commonly due to obstruc-
tion anterior to the bladder, as in stricture of the urethra or enlarge-
ment of the prostate. The distended bladder can be felt as a rounded
swelling above the pubes, and perhaps reaching to the level of the
navel. Percussion over it gives a dull note. When the bladder is
distended, it is necessary to evacuate it as soon as possible. If
there is no obstruction to the flow of urine, the retention being due
to atony or paralysis, a soft catheter is passed and the water drawn
off. But when there is an obstruction which cannot be overcome,
aspiration has to be resorted to, the needle of the aspirator being
pushed through the abdominal wall into the bladder. The point of
puncture in the abdominal wall is in the middle line a few inches
above the symphysis pubis. The bladder may be emptied in this
way very many times in the same person with only good result.

Diseases of Prostate Gland.

The prostate gland may become acutely inflamed as the result
of the backward extension of gonorrhoeal inflammation of the
urethra; it may also be attacked by the germs of ordinary
suppuration as well as by the bacilli of tuberculosis. A sudden
enlargement of a large gland lying against the outlets of the
bladder and the bowel renders micturition difficult, painful or
impossible, and interferes with defaecation. Pressure of the
seat of the chair upon the perineum also causes distress, so the
man sits sideways and on the edge of the seat. If abscess forms,
it should be incised from the perineum; if allowed to run its
course it may burst into the bladder, the urethra or the rectum,
and set up serious complication. The treatment of prostatitis
(inflammation of the prostate) consists in rest in bed, sitz-baths
and fomentations. If retention of urine takes place a soft
catheter must be passed. In the early stage of an acute attack a
dozen leeches upon the perineum may do good. The bowels
must be kept freely open, and from time to time, as the pain
demands, a morphia suppository may be introduced into the
bowel.

Chronic prostatitis is a legacy from a recent or long-past attack of
gonorrhoea. The enlargement gives rise to a feeling of weight and
fulness in the perineum, irritability of the bladder, and a gleety
urethral discharge. Manual examination reveals the presence of a
large, hard mass in front of the bladder, and in the mass there can
often be felt softish or tender areas which seem to threaten abscess.
On urine being passed into a glass, a cloudiness is seen, and material
like pieces of vermicelli or broken threads may be noticed. These
are the castings from the long tubular glands, and are characteristic
of chronic inflammation of the prostate. The occasional passage of
a large metal bougie, the use of weak lotions of nitrate of silver, the
administration of quinine and iron, and the application of blisters
to the perineum, may be tried as circumstances direct. The patient
should lead a quiet life, free from sexual excitement. Horse-exercise,
cycle-riding, rough games and alcohol should be avoided.

Enlargement of the prostate exists in a considerable proportion
of men of about sixty years of age and onward. It consists of an
uncontrolled growth of the normal muscular and glandular
tissue of the prostate, interfering with, or absolutely stopping,
the outflow of the urine. Gently pushing the bladder upwards
and backwards, it increases the length of the urethra, so that
in order to draw off retained urine the catheter must be longer
than ordinary, but inasmuch as there is no actual narrowing of
the passage it may be of full calibre. The beak should be well
turned up so that it may ride in front of, and surmount, the
median enlargement. Because of the thick, ring-like mass of
new tissue around the outlet of the bladder, there is difficulty in
micturition, and because the muscular bladder wall is now
unable to contract upon all its contents a certain amount of
urine is retained. As the enlarged prostate bulges up in the
floor of the bladder, a pouch or hollow forms behind it, from
which the muscular wall is unable to dislodge the stagnant urine.
This keeps up constant irritation, and if by chance the germs of
decomposition find their way thither, cystitis sets in and the
patient's condition becomes serious, not only because of the risk
to which his tired and irritated kidneys are submitted, but
because of the possibility of a phosphatic stone being formed in
the bladder. The seriousness of enlargement of the prostate
does not depend upon the size of the growth so much as upon the
inability of the patient to empty his bladder completely.

The surgeon forms his estimate of the size of the prostate by rectal
examination. But sometimes a patient has retention of urine from

BLADDER- WORT— BLAENAVON

enlarged prostate, when by this method of manual examination the
amount of increase appears quite unimportant. The explanation is
that the enlargement is chiefly confined to a small piece of the gland
which protrudes like a tongue into the water-way. Robert M°Gill of
Leeds was the first surgeon to remove by a supra-pubic operation
this tongue-like process of new prostatic growth. Attempts had
sometimes been made to get rid of it by instrumentation through the
urethra, but they had not met with much success.

When the surgeon has made out the existence of an enlargement
of the prostate, the next thing is to find to what extent this interferes
with the bladder being emptied. To do this, he asks the patient to
pass. as much water as he is able, and then with due precautions
introduces a soft catheter and measures the amount of urine which he
thus draws off — half an ounce, an ounce, two ounces, however much
it may be. It is this " residual urine " which causes the annoyance
and the danger of enlarged prostate, and unless arrangements can
be made for its regular withdrawal serious trouble is almost certain
to ensue. The passing of a large catheter may have the effect of so
opening up the water-way that, at any rate for a time, the irritability
of the bladder may cease, in which case the patient may be instructed
in the art of passing a catheter for himself. Or the surgeon may find
that in addition to the regular passing of a large catheteran occasional
washing-out of the bladder with hot boracic lotion is all that is
needed in the way of active treatment. At the same time, howeverj
the patient is placed upon a plain and wholesome diet with little or
no alcohol, and he is instructed to lead in every respect a regular
and quiet life. To many men with enlarged prostate the passing of
an instrument night and morning is no great hardship, while to
others the idea of leading what is called a " catheter life " appears
intolerable, or, having for a time been patiently carried out, is found
not only severely trying but greatly disappointing.

In some people the very first passing of a catheter sets up a local
and constitutional disturbance, the bladder being rendered irritable
and intolerant, the temperature going up, and shiverings and
perspirations manifesting themselves. This condition was formerly
called " catheter fever," and was looked upon as something mys-
terious and peculiar. It is now generally understood to be the
result of septic inoculation of the interior of the bladder.

Lastly, in other persons the passing of the catheter is attended
with so much difficulty, distress or bleeding, that something more
helpful and effectual is urgently called for.

Operative Treatment.— It has long been known that large
tumours of the uterus sometimes dwindle if the ovaries are
removed by operation, and Professor William White of Phila-
delphia thought that prostatic growths might be similarly
influenced by the removal of the testicles. Beyond question
considerable improvement has followed this operation in cases
of enlargement of the prostate, especially where the enlargement
seetaed to be general, soft and vascular. A similar though
perhaps a slower effect is produced when the duct of the testis,
the vas deferens, is divided on each side of the body. If there
is no great urgency about the case this treatment may well be
tried, the bladder being all the while duly emptied by catheter
and washed by irrigation. But if the case is urgent, there being
difficulty or bleeding with the passing of the catheter, the
bladder being excessively irritable and the urine foul, a more
radical measure is needed. The best operation is that upon the
lines laid down by Robert M°Gill, who opened the bladder
through the anterior abdominal wall and removed that part of
the prostate gland which was blocking the water-way. M e GiU's
operation was improved upon by Eugene Fuller of New York,
who, in 1895, published a full account of his procedure. 1 Having
opened the bladder from the front (as in supra-pubic lithotomy),
he introduced his left index finger into the rectum and thrust the
prostate gland towards the right index finger, which was then in
the bladder. With the nail of that finger, or with the end of a
pair of scissors, he made a rent in the mucous membrane of the
bladder and the capsule of the gland, and then shelled out the
mass of new tissue which had caused the prostatic enlargement.
This operation is called " prostatectomy," which means the
removal of the prostate gland. The prostate gland, however, is
not removed, but only a muscular and glandular mass (adenoma),
which, growing within the prostatic capsule, encircles the
urethra and squeezes the original gland tissue out of existence.
Following on the lines of M c Gill and Fuller, P. J. Freyer has done
excellent work in England towards placing this operation upon
a sound basis.

Subsequently to the operation the bladder enjoys complete

1 Diseases of the Genito-urinary System, by Eugene Fuller, M.D.
(London and New York, 1900).

and needful rest, and the kidneys, which previously were in a
condition of perpetual disturbance, improve in working power.
The wound in the bladder and in the abdominal wall gradually
closes; the function of the bladder returns, and the patient is
soon able to go back to his usual occupation in greatly improved
health and vigour. The operation is, necessarily, a serious one,
and the age of the patient, the condition of his bladder, of his
kidneys, and of his blood-vessels, require to- be taken into con-
sideration; still, the operation gives an excellent account of
itself in statistics, and if a practical surgeon advises a patient to
accept its risks his counsel may well be followed.

Malignant disease of the prostate is distinguished from senile
glandular enlargement by the rapidity of its growth, by the freeneSs
of the bleeding which is associated with the introduction of a catheter,
and by the marked wasting which the individual undergoes. Un-
fortunately, by the time that the cancerous nature of the disease is
definitely recognized, the prospect of relief being afforded by opera-
tion is small. (E. O.*)

BLADDER-WORT, the name given to a submerged water
plant, Utricidariq vulgaris, with finely divided leaves upon which
are borne small bladders provided with trap-door entrances
which open only inwards. Small crustaceans and other aquatic
animals push their way into the bladders and are unable to
escape. The products of the decay of the organisms thus

A, Bladder of .Utricularia neglecta (after Darwin), enlarged.
B, stellate hairs from interior of bladder of U. vulgaris.

captured are absorbed into the plant by star-shaped hairs which
line the interior of the bladder. In this way the plant is supplied
with nitrogenous food from the animal kingdom. Bladder-wort
bears small, yellow, two-lipped flowers on a stem which rises above
the surface of the water. It is found in pools and ditches in the
British Isles, and is widely distributed in the north temperate
zone. The genus contains about two hundred species in tropical
and temperate regions.

BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890), English printer and biblio-
grapher, was born at Clapham, London, on the 5th of December
1824. In 1840 he was apprenticed to his' father's printing
business in London, being subsequently taken into partnership.
The firm was afterwards known as Blades, East & Blades.
His interest in printing led him to make a study of the volumes
produced by Caxton's press, and of the early history of printing
in England. His Life and Typography of William Caxton,
England's First Printer, was published in 1861-1863, and the
conclusions which he set forth were arrived at by a careful
examination of types in the early books, each class of type being
traced from its first use to the time when, spoilt by wear, it
passed out of Caxton's hands. Some 450 volumes from the
Caxton Press were thus carefully compared and classified in
chronological order. In 1877 Blades took an active part in
organizing the Caxton celebration, and strongly supported the
foundation of the Library Association. He was a keen collector
of old books, prints and medals. His publications relate chiefly
to the early history of printing, the Enemies of Books, his most
popular work, being produced in 1881. He died at Sutton in
Surrey on the 27th of April 1890.

BLAENAVON, or Blaenafon, an urban district in the northern
parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 15 m. N. by
W. of Newport, on the Great Western, London & North Western
and Rhymney railways. Pop. (igoi) 10,869. It lies in the upper-
most part of the Afon Lwyd valley, at an elevation exceeding
1000 ft, in a wild and mountainous district, on the eastern

BLAGOVYESHCHENSK— BLAINE

edge of the great coal and iron mining region of Glamorganshire
and Monmouthshire. There are very extensive iron and steel
works, with blast furnaces and rolling mills in the district, which
employ the large industrial population.

BLAGOVYESHCHENSK, a town of East Siberia, chief town of
the Amur government, on the left bank of the Amur, near its
confluence with the Zeya in 50 15' N. lat. and 127 38' E. long.,
610 m. by river above Khabarovsk. Founded in 1856, the town
had, in 1900, 37,368 inhabitants, and is the seat of the bishop of
Amur and Kamchatka. There are steam flour-mills and iron-
works. It is a centre for tea exported to Russia, cattle brought
from Transbaikalia and Mongolia for the Amur, and for grain.

BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN (1820-1899), Scottish divine,
was born on the 5th of February 1820, at Aberdeen, where his
father had been the first provost of the reformed corporation.
After studying at the Marischal College, where Alexander Bain
and David Masson were among his contemporaries, he went in
1839 to Edinburgh to complete his theological course under
Thomas Chalmers. In 1842 he was presented to the living of
Drumblade by Lord Kintore, with whose family he was con-
nected. The Disruption controversy reached its climax immedi-
ately afterwards, and Blaikie, whose sympathies were entirely
with Chalmers, was one of the 474 ministers who signed the deed
of demission and gave up their livings. He was Free Church
minister at Pilrig, between Edinburgh and Leith, from 1844 to
1868. Keenly interested in questions of social reform, his first
publication was a pamphlet, which was afterwards enlarged into
a book called Belter Days for Working People. It received public
commendation from Lord Brougham, and 60,000 copies were
sold. He formed an association for providing better homes for
working people, and the Pilrig Model Buildings were erected.
He also undertook the editorship of the Free Church Magazine,
and then that of the North British Review, which he carried on
until 1863. In 1864 he was asked to undertake the Scottish
editorship of the Sunday Magazine, and for this magazine much
of his most characteristic literary work was done, especially in
the editorial notes, then a new feature in magazine literature.

In 1868 Blaikie was called to the chair of apologetics and
pastoral theology at New College, Edinburgh. In dealing with
the latter subject he was seen at his very best. He had
wide experience, a comprehensive grasp of facts, abundant
sympathy, an extensive knowledge of men, and a great capacity
for teaching. In 1870 he was one of two representatives chosen
from the Free Church of Scotland to attend the united general
assembly of the Presbyterian churches of the United States.
He prolonged his visit to make a thorough acquaintance with
American Presbyterianism, and this, followed by a similar tour
in Europe, fitted him to become the real founder of the Presby-
terian Alliance. Much of his strength in the later years of life
was given to this work. In 1892 he was elected to the chairman-
ship of the general assembly, the last of the moderators who had
entered the church before the disruption. In 1897 he resigned
his professorship, and died on the 1 ith of June 1899.

Blaikie was an ardent philanthropist, and an active and
intelligent temperance reformer, in days when this was far from
easy. He raised £14,000 for the relief of the Waldensian churches.
Although he took an active part in the affairs of his denomination,
he was not a mere ecclesiastic. He had a keen eye for the
evidences of spiritual growth or decline, and emphasized the need
of maintaining a high level of spiritual life. He welcomed
Moody to Scotland, and the evangelist made his headquarters
with him during his first visit. His best books are The Work
of the Ministry — A Manual of Homiletic and Pastoral Theology
(1873); The Books of Samuel in the Expositors' Bible Series
(2 vols.); The Personal Life of David Livingstone (1880); After
Fifty Years (1893), an account of the Disruption Movement
in the form of letters of a grandfather; Thomas Chalmers
(1896). ' (D. Mn.)

BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE (1830-1893), American states-
man, was born in West Brownsville, Pennsylvania, on the 31st of
January 1830, of sturdy Scottish-Irish stock on the side of his
father. He was the great-grandson of Colonel Ephraim Blaine

(1 741-1804), who during the War of Independence served in
the American army, from 1778 to 1782 as commissary-general
of the Northern Department. With many early evidences of
literary capacity and political aptitude, J. G. Blaine graduated
at Washington College in Washington, Pennsylvania, in 1847,
and subsequently taught successively in the Military Institute,
Georgetown, Kentucky, and in the Institution for the Blind at
Philadelphia. During this period, also, he studied law. Settling
in Augusta, Maine, in 1854, he became editor of the Kennebec
Journal, and subsequently of the Portland Advertiser. But his
editorial work was soon abandoned for a more active public
career. He was elected to the lower house of the state legislature
in 1858, and served four years, the last two as speaker. He also
became chairman of the Republican state committee in 1859, and
for more than twenty years personally directed every campaign of
his party.

In 1862 he was elected to Congress, serving in the House
thirteen years (December 1863 to December 1876), followed by a
little over four years in the Senate. He was chosen speaker of the
House in 1869 and served three terms. The House was the fit
arena for his political and parliamentary ability. He was a ready
and powerful debater, full of resource, and dexterous in con-
troversy. The tempestuous politics of the war and reconstruction
period suited his aggressive nature and constructive talent. The
measures for the rehabilitation of the states that had seceded
from the Union occupied the chief attention of Congress for
several years, and Blaine bore a leading part in framing and
discussing them. The primary question related to the basis of
representation upon which they should be restored to their full
rank in the political system. A powerful section contended that
the basis should be the body of legal voters, on the ground that
the South could not then secure an increment of political power:
on account of the emancipated blacks unless these blacks were
admitted to political rights. Blaine, on the other hand, con-
tended that representation should be based on population instead
of voters, as being fairer to the North, where the ratio of voters
varied widely, and he insisted that it should be safeguarded by
security for impartial suffrage. This view prevailed, and the
Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution was substantially
Blaine's proposition. In the same spirit he opposed a scheme of
military governments for the southern states, unless associated
with a plan by which, upon the acceptance of prescribed con-
ditions, they could release themselves from military rule and
resume civil government. He was the first in Congress to oppose
the claim, which gained momentary and widespread favour in
1867, that the public debt, pledged in coin, should be paid in
greenbacks. The protection of naturalized citizens who, on
return to their native land, were subject to prosecution on
charges of disloyalty, enlisted his active interest and support, and
the agitation, in which he was conspicuous, led to the treaty of
1870 between the United States and Great Britain, which placed
adopted and native citizens on the same footing.

As the presidential election of 1876 approached, Blaine was
clearly the popular favourite of his party. His chance for
securing the nomination, however, was materially lessened by
persistent charges which were brought against him by the
Democrats that as a member of Congress he had been guilty of
corruption in his relations with the Little Rock & Fort Smith and
the Northern Pacific railways. 1 By the majority of Republicans,
at least, he was considered to have cleared himself completely,
and in the Republican national convention he missed by only
twenty-eight votes the nomination for president, being finally
beaten by a combination of the supporters of all the other
candidates. Thereupon he entered the Senate, where his activity
was unabated. Currency legislation was especially prominent.
Blaine, who had previously opposed greenback inflation now
resisted depreciated silver coinage. He was the earnest champion
of the advancement of American shipping, and advocated
liberal subsidies, insisting that the policy of protection should be
applied on sea as well as on land. The Republican national

1 This attack led to a dramatic scene in the House, in which Blaine
fervidly asseverated his denial.

BLAINVILLE— BLAIR, F. P.

convention of 1880, divided between the two nearly equal forces
of Blaine and General U. S. Grant — John Sherman of Ohio also
having a considerable following— struggled through thirty-six
ballots, when the friends of Blaine, combining with those of
Sherman, succeeded in nominating General James A. Garfield.
In the new administration Blaine became secretary of state, but,
owing to the assassination of President Garfield and the re-
organization of the cabinet by President Chester A. Arthur, he
held the office only until December 1881. His brief service was
distinguished by several notable steps. In order to promote the
friendly understanding and co-operation of the nations on the
American continents he projected a Pan-American congress,
which, after being arranged for, was frustrated by his retirement.
He also sought to secure a modification of the Clayton-Bulwer
treaty, and in an extended correspondence with the British
government strongly asserted the policy of an exclusive American
control of any isthmian canal which might be built to connect the
Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

With undiminished hold on the imagination and devotion of
his followers he was nominated for president in 1884. After a
heated canvass, in which he made a series of brilliant speeches,
he was beaten by a narrow margin in New York. By many,
including Blaine himself, the defeat was attributed to the effect
of a phrase, " Rum, Romanism and Rebellion," used by a
clergyman, Rev. Samuel D. Burchard (1812-1891), on the 29th
of October 1884, in Blaine's presence, to characterize what, in his
opinion, the Democratic party stood for. The phrase was not
Blaine's, but his opponents made use of it to misrepresent his
attitude toward the Roman Catholics, large numbers of whom
are supposed, in consequence, to have withdrawn their support.
Refusing to be a presidential candidate in 1888, he became
secretary of state under President Harrison, and resumed his
work which had been interrupted nearly eight years before. The
Pan-American congress, then projected, now met in Washington,
and Blaine, as its master spirit, presided over and guided its
deliberation through its session of five months. Its most im-
portant conclusions were for reciprocity in trade, a continental
railway and compulsory arbitration in international complications.
Shaping the tariff legislation for this policy, Blaine negotiated a
large number of reciprocity treaties which augmented the com-
merce of his country. He upheld American rights in Samoa,
pursued a vigorous diplomacy with Italy over the lynching of
eleven Italians, all except three of them American naturalized
citizens, in New Orleans on the 14th of May 1891, held a firm
attitude during the strained relations between the United States
and Chile (growing largely out of the killing and wounding of
American sailors of the U.S. ship " Baltimore " by Chileans in
Valparaiso on the 16th of October 1891), and carried on with
Great Britain a resolute controversy over the seal fisheries of
Bering Sea, — a difference afterwards settled by arbitration. He
resigned on the 4th of June 1892, on the eve of the meeting of the
Republican national convention, wherein his name was ineffectu-
ally used, and he died at Washington, D.C., on the 27th of
January 1893.

During his later years of leisure he wrote Twenty Years of
Congress (1884-1886), a brilliant historical work in two volumes.
Of singularly alert faculties, with a remarkable knowledge of the
men and history of his country, and an extraordinary memory,
his masterful talent for politics and state-craft, together with
his captivating manner and engaging personality, gave him, for
nearly two decades, an unrivalled hold upon the fealty and
affection of his party.

See the Biography of James G. Blaine (Norwich, Conn., 1895) by
Mary Abigail Dodge ("Gail Hamilton"), and, in the "American
Statesmen Series," James G. Blaine (Boston, 1905) by C. E. Stan-
wood; also Mrs Blaine's Letters (1908). (C. E. S.)

BLAINVILLE, HENRI MARIE DUCROTAY DE (1777-1850),
French naturalist, was born at Arques, near Dieppe, on the
12th of September 1777. About 1796 he went to Paris to study
painting, but he ultimately devoted himself to natural history,
and attracted the attention of Baron Cuvier, for whom he
occasionally lectured at the College de France and at the
iv. 2

Athenaeum. In 181 2 he was aided by Cuvier to obtain the chaii
of anatomy and zoology in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris, but
subsequently an estrangement grew up between the two men
and ended in open enmity. In 1825 Blainville was admitted
a member of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1830 he was
appointed to succeed J. B. Lamarck in the chair of natural
history at the museum. Two years later, on the death of Cuvier,
he obtained the chair of comparative anatomy, which he con-
tinued to occupy for the space of eighteen years, proving him-
self no unworthy successor to his great teacher. He died at
Paris on the 1st of May 1850. Besides many separate memoirs,
he was the author of Prodrome d'une nouvelle distribution mitho-
dique du regne animal (181 6); Osteographie ou description
iconographique comparSe du squelelte, &c. (1839-1864); Faune
francaise (1821-1830); Cours de physiologie ginirale et comparee
(1833); Manuel de malacologie et de conchyliologie (1825-1827);
Histoire des sciences de Forganisme (1845).

BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON (1791-1876), American journa-
list and politician, was born at Abingdon, Virginia, on the 12th
of April 1 791. He removed to Kentucky, graduated at Transyl-
vania University in 181 1, took to journalism, and was a
contributor to Amos Kendall's paper, the Argus, at Frank-
fort, In 1830, having become an ardent follower of Andrew
Jackson, he was made editor of the Washington Globe, the
recognized organ of the Jackson party. In this capacity, and
as a member of Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet," he long exerted
a powerful influence; the Globe was the administration organ
until 1841, and the chief Democratic organ until 1845; Blair
ceased to be its editor in 1849. In 1848 he actively supported
Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate, for the presidency,
and in 1852 he supported Franklin Pierce, but soon afterwards
helped to organize the new Republican party, and presided
at its preliminary convention at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in
February 1856. He was influential in securing the nomination
of John C. Fremont at the June convention (1856), and of
Abraham Lincoln in i860. After Lincoln's re-election in 1864
Blair thought that his former close personal relations with the
Confederate leaders might aid in bringing about a cessation of
hostilities, and with Lincoln's consent went unofficially to
Richmond and induced President Jefferson Davis to appoint com-
missioners to confer with representatives of the United States.
This resulted in the futile " Hampton Roads Conference " of the
3rd of February 1865 (see Lincoln, Abraham). After the Civil
War Blair became a supporter of President Johnson's recon-
struction policy, and eventually rejoined the Democratic party.
He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on the 18th of October 1876.

His son, Montgomery Blair (1813-1883), politician and
lawyer, was born in Franklin county, Kentucky, on the 10th of
May 1813. He graduated at West Point in 1835, but, after a
year's service in the Seminole War, left the army, studied law,
and began practice at St Louis, Missouri. After serving as
United States district attorney (1839-1843), as mayor of St
Louis (1842-1843), and as judge of the court of common pleas
(1843-1849), he removed to Maryland (1852), and devoted
himself to law practice principally in the Federal supreme coui t.
He was United States solicitor in the court of claims from 1855
until 1858, and was associated with George T. Curtis as counsel
for the plaintiff in the Dred Scott case in 1857. In i860 he took
an active part in the presidential campaign in behalf of Lincoln,
in whose cabinet he was postmaster-general from 1861 until
September 1864, when he resigned as a result of the hostility
of the Radical Republican faction, who stipulated that Blair's
retirement should follow the withdrawal of Fremont's name as
a candidate for the presidential nomination in that year. Under
his administration such reforms and improvements as the
establishment of free city delivery, the adoption of a money
order system, and the use of railway mail cars were instituted
— the last having been suggested by George B. Armstrong
(d. 1871), of Chicago, who from 1869 until his death was general
superintendent of the United States railway mail service.
Differing from the Republican party on the reconstruction policy,
Blair gave his adherence to the Democratic party after the Civil

BLAIR^ H.-^BLAIK ATHOLL

War. He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on the 27 th of July

1883. ;

Another son, Francis Preston Blair, jun. (1821-1875'),
soldier and political leader, was born at Lexington, Kentucky,
on the 19th of February 1821. After graduating at Princeton
in 1841 he practised law in St Louis, and later served in the
Mexican War. He was ardently opposed to the extension of
slavery and supported Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil can-
didate for the presidency in 1848. He served from 1852 to 1856
in the Missouri legislature as a Free Soil Democrat, in 1856
joined the Republican party, and in 1857-1860 and 1861-1862
was a member of Congress, where he proved an able debater.
Immediately after South Carolina's secession, Blair, believing
that the southern leaders were planning to carry Missouri into
the movement, began active efforts to prevent it and personally
[organized and equipped a secret body of 1000 men to be ready
for the emergency. When hostilities became inevitable, acting
in conjunction with Captain (later General) Nathaniel Lyon,
he suddenly transferred the arms in the Federal arsenal at
St Louis to Alton, Illinois, and a few days later (May 10, 1861)
surrounded and captured a force of state guards which ha!d
been stationed at Camp Jackson in the suburbs of St Louis with
the intention of seizing the arsenal. This action gave the Federal
cause a decisive initial advantage in Missouri. Blair was pro-
moted brigadier-general of volunteers in August 1862 and a
major-general in November 1862. In Congress as chairman of
the important military affairs committee his services were of
ihe greatest value. He commanded a division in the Vicksburg
campaign and in the fighting about Chattanooga, and was one of
Sherman's corps commanders in the final campaigns in Georgia
and the Carolinas. In 1866 like his father and brother he
opposed the Congressional reconstruction policy, and on that
issue left the Republican party. In 1868 he was the Demo-
cratic candidate for -vice-president on the ticket with Horatio
Seymour. In 1871-1873 he was a United States senator from
Missouri. He died in St Louis, on the 8th of July 1875.

BLAIR, HUGH (1718-1800), Scottish Presbyterian divine,
was born on the 7th of April 1718, at Edinburgh, where his
father was a merchant. Entering the university in 1730 he
graduated M.A. in 1739; his thesis, De Fundamentis et Obliga-
tione Legis Naturae, contains an outline of the moral principles
afterwards unfolded in his sermons. He was licensed to preach
in 1 741, and a few months later the earl of Leven, hearing of his
eloquence, presented him to the parish of Collessie in Fife. In
1743 he was elected to the second charge of the Canongate church,
Edinburgh, where he ministered until removed to Lady Yester's,
one of the city churches, in 1754. In 1757 the university of
St Andrews conferred on him the degree of D.D., and in the
following year he was promoted to the High Church, Edinburgh,
the most important charge in Scotland. In 1759 he began,
under the patronage of Lord Kames, to deliver a course of
lectures on composition, the success of which led to the foundation
of a chair of rhetoric and belles lettres in the Edinburgh University.
To this chair he was appointed in 1762, with a salary of £70 a
year. Having long taken interest in the Celtic poetry of the
Highlands, he published in 1763 a laudatory Dissertation on
Macpherson's Ossian, the authenticity of which he maintained.
In 1777 the first volume of his Sermons appeared. It was
succeeded by four other volumes, all of which met with the
greatest success. Samuel Johnson praised them warmly, and
they were translated into almost every language of Europe.
In 1780 George III. conferred upon Blair a pension of £200 a
year. In 1783 he retired from his professorship and published
his Lectures on Rhetoric, which have been frequently reprinted.
He died on the 27 th of December 1800. Blair belonged to the
" moderate " or latitudinarian party, and his Sermons have
been criticized as wanting in doctrinal definiteness. His works
display little originality, but are written in a flowing and
elaborate style. He is remembered chiefly by the place he fills
in the literature of his time. Blair's Sermons is a typical religious
book of the period that preceded the Anglican revival.

See J. Hall, Account of Life and Writings of Hugh Blair (1807).

BLAIR, JAMES (1656-1743), American divine and educa-
tionalist, was born in Scotland, probably at Edinburgh, in 1656.
He graduated M.A. at Edinburgh University in 1673, was
beneficed in the Episcopal Church in Scotland, and for a time
was rector of Cranston Parish in the diocese of Edinburgh. In
1682 he left Scotland for England, and three years later was sent
by the bishop of London, Henry Compton, as a missionary to
Virginia. He soon gained great influence over the colonists both
in ecclesiastical and in civil affairs, and, according to Prof. Moses
Coit Tyler, " probably no other man in the colonial time did so
much for the intellectual life of Virginia." He was the minister
of Henrico parish from 1685 until 1694, of the Jamestown church
from 1694 until 1710, and of Bruton church at Williamsburg
from 1710 until his death. From 1689 until his death he was the
commissary of the bishop of London for Virginia, the highest
ecclesiastical position in the colony, his duties consisting ■" in
visiting the parishes, correcting the lives of the clergy, and
keeping them orderly." In 1693, by the appointment of King
William III., he became a member of the council of Virginia,
of which he was for many years the president. Largely because
of charges brought against them by Blair, Governor Sir Edmund
Andros, Lieutenant-governor Francis Nicholson, and Lieutenant-
governor Alexander Spotswood were removed in 1698, 1705 and
1722 respectively. Blair's greatest service to the colony was
rendered as the founder, and the president from 1693 until his
death, of the College of William and Mary, for which he himself
secured a charter in England. " Thus, James Blair may be
called," says Tyler, " the creator of the healthiest and most
extensive intellectual influence that was felt in the Southern
group of colonies before the Revolution." He died on the 18th
of April 1743, and was buried at Jamestown, Va. He published
a collection of 117 discourses under the title Our Saviour's
Divine Sermon on the Mount (4 vols., 1722; second edition, 1732),
and, in collaboration with Henry Hartwell and Edward Chilton,
a work entitled The Present State of Virginia and the College
(1727; written in 1693), probably the best account of the
Virginia of that time.

See Daniel E. Motley's Life of Commissary James Blair (Baltimore,
1901 ; series xix. No. 10, of the Johns Hopkins University Studies
in Historical and Political Science), and, for a short sketch and an
estimate, M. C. Tyler's A History of American Literature, 1607-1765
(New York, 1878).

BLAIR, ROBERT (1 699-1 746), Scottish poet, eldest son of
the Rev. Robert Blair, one of the king's chaplains, was born at
Edinburgh in 1699. He was educated at Edinburgh University
and in Holland, and in 1731 was appointed to the living of
Athelstaneford in East Lothian. He married in 1738 Isabella,
daughter of Professor William Law. The possession of a small
fortune gave him leisure for his favourite pursuits, gardening
and the study of English poets. He died at Athelstaneford on
the 4th of February 1746. His only considerable work, The
Grave (1743), is a poem written in blank verse of great vigour
and freshness, and is much less conventional than its gloomy
subject might lead one to expect. Its religious subject no doubt
contributed to its great popularity, especially in Scotland; but
the vogue it attained was justified by its picturesque imagery
and occasional felicity of expression. It inspired William Blake
to undertake a series of twelve illustrative designs, which were
engraved by Louis Schiavonetti, and published in 1808.

See the biographical introduction prefixed to his Poetical Works,
by Dr Robert Anderson, in his Poets of Great Britain, vol. viii.
(I794-)

BLAIR ATHOLL (Gaelic blair, " a plain "), a village and
parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 35! m. N.W. of Perth by the
Highland railway. Pop. (1901) 367; of parish, 1722. It is
situated at the confluence of the Tilt and the Garry. The oldest
part of Blair Castle, a seat of the duke of Atholl, dates from
1269; as restored and enlarged in 1869-1872 from the plans of
David Bryce, R.S.A., it is a magnificent example of the Scottish
baronial style. It was occupied by the marquess of Montrose
prior to the battle of Tippermuir in 1644, stormed by the Crom-
wellians in 1653, and garrisoned on behalf of James II. in 1689.
The Young Pretender stayed in it in 174s, and the duke of

BLAIRGOWRIE-^BLAKE, R.

Cumberland in 1746. The body of Viscount Dundee, conveyed
hither from the battlefield of Killiecrankie, was buried in the
church of Old Blair, in which a monument was erected to his
memory in 1889 by the 7th duke of Atholl. The grounds
surrounding the castle are among the most beautiful in the
Highlands. A golf course has been laid down south-east of the
village, between the railway and the Garry, and every September
a great display of Highland games is held. Ben-y-gloe (3671 ft.
high), the scene of the hunt given in 1529 by the earl of Atholl
in honour of James V. and the queen dowager, may be climbed
by way of Fender Burn, a left-hand tributary of the Tilt. The
falls of Fender, near the old bridge' of Tilt, are eclipsed by the
falls of Bruar, 4 m. west of Blair Atholl, formed by the Bruar,
which, rising in Ben Dearg (3304 ft.), flows into the Garry after
an impetuous course of 10 m.

BLAIRGOWRIE, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland,
situated on the Ericht. Pop. (1901) 3378. It is the terminus
of a branch line of the Caledonian railway from Coupar Angus,
from which it is 4J m. distant, and is 16 m. N. by E. of Perth by
road. The town is entirely modern, and owes its progress to the
water-power supplied by the Ericht for linen and jute factories.
There are also sawmills, breweries and a large factory for bee
appliances. Strawberries, raspberries and other fruits are
largely grown in the neighbourhood. A park was presented to
the town in 1892. On the left bank of the Ericht, opposite
Blairgowrie, with which it is connected by a four-arched bridge,
stands the town and police burgh of Rattray (pop. 2019), where
there are flax and jute mills. Donald Cargill the Covenanter,
who was executed at Edinburgh, was a native of the parish.
Four miles west of Blairgowrie, on the coach road to Dunkeld, lies
Loch Clunie, of some interest historically. On a crannog in the
lake are the ruins of a small castle which belonged to James
(" the Admirable ") Crichton, and the large mound near the loch
was the site of the castle in which Edward I. lodged on one of his
Scottish expeditions.

BLAKE, EDWARD (1833- ), Irish-Canadian statesman,
eldest son of William Hume Blake of Cashel Grove, Co. Galway,
who settled in Canada in 1832, and there became a distinguished
lawyer and chancellor of Ontario, was born on the 13th of
October 1833 at Adelaide in Middlesex county, Ontario. Edu-
cated at Upper Canada College and the university of Toronto,
Blake was called to the bar in 1856 and quickly obtained a good
practice, becoming Q.C. in 1864. In 1867 he was elected member
for West Durham in the Dominion parliament, and for South
Bruce in the provincial legislature, in which he became leader
of the Liberal opposition two years later. On the defeat of John
Sandfield Macdonald's government in 1871 Blake became prime
minister of Ontario, but resigned this office the same year in
consequence of the abolition of dual representation. He declined
the leadership of the Liberal party in the Dominion parliament,
but, having taken an active part in bringing about the overthrow
of Sir John Macdonald's ministry in 1873, joined the Liberal
cabinet of Alexander Mackenzie, though without portfolio or
salary. Impaired health soon compelled him to resign, and to
take the voyage to Europe; on his return in 1875 he rejoined
the cabinet as minister of justice, in which office it fell to him to
take the chief part in framing the constitution of the supreme
court of Canada. Continued ill-health compelled him in 1877
again to seek rest in Europe, having first exchanged the portfolio
of justice for the less exacting office of president of the council.
During his absence the Liberal government was driven from
power by the elections of 1878; and Blake himself, having
failed to secure re-election, was for a short time without a seat
in parliament. From 1880 to 1887 he was leader of the opposition,
being succeeded on his resignation of the position in the latter
year by Mr (afterwards Sir) Wilfrid Laurier. In 1892 he became
a member of the British House of Commons as an Irish Nationalist,
being elected for South Longford. But he did not fulfil the
expectations which had been formed on the strength of his
colonial reputation; he took no very prominent part in debate,
and gave little evidence of his undoubted oratorical gifts. In
1907 he retired from public life. In 1858 he had married

Margaret, daughter of Benjamin Cronyn, first bishop of
Huron.

See John Charles Dent, The Last Forty Years: Canada Since the
Union of 184.1 (2 vols., Toronto, 1881) ; J. S. Willison, Sir Wilfrid
Laurier and the Liberal Party (2 vols., London, 1904).

BLAKE, ROBERT (1599-1657), English parliamentarian and
admiral, was born at Bridgwater in Somersetshire. The day of
his birth is not known, but he was baptized oh the 27th of
September 1599. Blake was the eldest son of a well-to-do
merchant, and received his early education at the grammar
school of Bridgwater. In 1615 he was sent to Oxford, entering
at first St Alban's Hall, but removing afterwards to Wadham
College, then recently founded. He remained at the university
till 1625, but failed to obtain any college preferment. Nothing is
known of his life with certainty for the next fifteen years. An
anonymous Dutch writer, in the Hollandische Mercurius (1652),
represents him as saying that he had lived in Schiedam " for five
or six years " in his youth. He doubtless engaged in trade, and
apparently with success. When, after eleven years of kingship
without parliaments, a parliament was summoned to meet in
April 1640, Blake was elected to represent his native borough,
This parliament, named "the Short," was dissolved in three
weeks, and the career of Blake as a politician was suspended.
Two years later the inevitable conflict began. Blake declared
for the Parliament, and served under Sir John Horner. In 1643
he was entrusted with the command of one of the forts of Bristol,
This he stoutly held during the siege of the town by Prince
Rupert, and earned the approval of parliament by refusing to
surrender his post till duly informed of the capitulation. In
1644 he gained high distinction by the resolute defence of Lyme
in Dorsetshire. The siege was raised on the 23rd of May, and on
the 8th of July Blake took Taunton by surprise, and notwith-
standing its imperfect defences and inadequate supplies, held the
town for the Parliament against two sieges by the Royalists
until July 1645, when it was relieved by Fairfax. In 1645 he
re-entered parliament as member for Taunton, when the Royalist
Colonel Windham was expelled.

He adhered to the Parliamentary party after the king's death,
and within a month (February 1649) was appointed, with
Colonels Dean and Popham, to the command of the fleet, under
the title of General of the Sea. In April he was sent in pursuit
of Prince Rupert, who with the Royalist fleet had entered the
harbour of Kinsale in Ireland. There he blockaded the prince
for six months; and when the latter, in want of provisions, and
hopeless of relief, succeeded in making his escape with the flee!
and in reaching the Tagus, Blake followed him thither, and again
blockaded him for some months. The king of Portugal refusing
permission for Blake to attack his enemy, the latter made re-
prisals by falling on the Portuguese fleet, richly laden, returning
from Brazil. He captured seventeen ships and burnt three,
bringing his prizes home without molestation. After revictual-
ling his fleet, he sailed again, captured a French man-of-war, and
then pursued Prince Rupert, who had been asked to go away
by the Portuguese and had entered the Mediterranean. In
November 1650 Blake destroyed the bulk of the Royalist
squadron near Cartagena. The thanks of parliament were voted
to Blake, and he received a grant of /iooo. He was continued
in his office of admiral and general of the sea; and in May
following he took, in conjunction with Ayscue, the Scilly Islands.
For this service the thanks of parliament were again awarded
him, and he was soon after made a member of the council of
state.

In 1652 war broke out with the Dutch, who had made great
preparations for the conflict. In March the command of the
fleet was given to Blake for nine months; and in the middle of
May the Dutch fleet of forty-five ships, led by their great admiral
Tromp, appeared in the Downs. Blake, who had only twenty
ships, sailed to meet them, and the battle took place off Dover
on the 19th of May. The Dutch were defeated in an engagement
of four or five hours, lost two ships, and withdrew under cover
of darkness. Attempts at accommodation were made by the
states, but they failed. Early in July war was formally declared,

BLAKE, WILLIAM

and in the same month Blake captured a large part of the Dutch
fishery-fleet and the twelve men-of-war that formed their convoy.
On the 28th of September Blake and Penn again encountered the
Dutch fleet, now commanded by De Ruyter and De Witt, off
the Kentish Knock, defeated it, and chased it for two days.
The Dutch took refuge in Goree. A third battle was fought
near the end of November. By this time the ships under Blake's
command had been reduced in number to forty, and nearly the
half of these were useless for want of seamen. Tromp, who
had been reinstated in command, appeared in the Downs, with
a fleet of eighty ships besides ten fireships. Blake, nevertheless,
risked a battle off Dungeness, but was defeated, and withdrew
into the Thames. The English fleet having been refitted, put
to sea again in February 1653; and on the 18th Blake, at the
head of eighty ships, encountered Tromp in the Channel. The
Dutch force, according to Clarendon, numbered 100 ships of
war, but according to the official reports of the Dutch, only
seventy. The battle was severe, and continued through three
days, the Dutch, however, retreating, and taking refuge in the
shallow waters off the French coast. In this action Blake was
severely wounded. The three English admirals put to sea again
in May; and on the 3rd and 4th of June another battle was
fought near the North Foreland. On the first day Dean and
Monk were repulsed by Tromp; but on the second day the scales
were turned by the arrival of Blake, and the Dutch retreated to
the Texel.

Ill-health now compelled Blake to retire from the service for
a time, and he did not appear again on the seas for about eighteen
months; meanwhile he sat as a member of the Little Parliament
(Barebones's). In November 1654 he was selected by Cromwell
to conduct a fleet to the Mediterranean to exact compensation
from the duke of Tuscany, the knights of Malta, and the piratical
states of North Africa, for wrongs done to English merchants.
This mission he executed with his accustomed spirit and with
complete success. Tunis alone dared to resist his demands, and
Tunis paid the penalty of the destruction of its two fortresses
by English guns. In the winter of 1655-1656, war being declared
against Spain, Blake was sent to cruise off Cadiz and the neigh-
bouring coasts, to intercept the Spanish shipping. One of his
captains captured a part of the Plate fleet in September 1656.
In April 1657 Blake, then in very ill health, suffering from
dropsy and scurvy, and anxious to have assistance in his arduous
duties, heard that the Plate fleet lay at anchor in the bay of
Santa Cruz, in the island of Teneriffe. The position was a very
strong one, defended by a castle and several forts with guns.
Under the shelter of these lay a fleet of sixteen ships drawn up
in crescent order. Captain Stayner was ordered to enter the bay
and fall on the fleet. This he did. Blake followed him. Broad-
sides were poured into the castle and the forts at the same time;
and soon nothing was left but ruined walls and charred fragments
of burnt ships. The wind was blowing hard into the bay; but
suddenly, and fortunately for the heroic Blake, it shifted, and
carried him safely out to sea. " The whole action," says Clar-
endon, " was so incredible that all men who knew the place
wondered that any sober man, with what courage soever en-
dowed, would ever have undertaken it; and they could hardly
persuade themselves to believe what they had done; while
the Spaniards comforted themselves with the belief that they
were devils and not men who had destroyed them in such a
manner." The English lost one ship and 200 men killed and
wounded. The thanks of parliament were voted to officers and
men; and a very costly jewel (diamond ring) was presented to
Blake, " as a testimony," says Cromwell in his letter of 10th
June, " of our own and the parliament's good acceptance of
your carriage in this action." " This was the last action of the
brave Blake."

After again cruising for a time off Cadiz, his health failing
more and more, he was compelled to make homewards before
the summer was over. He died at sea, but within sight of Ply-
mouth, on the 17th of August 1657. His body was brought to
London and embalmed, and after lying in state at Greenwich
House was interred with great pomp and solemnity in Westminster

Abbey. , In 1661 Charles II. ordered the exhumation of Blake's
body, with those of the mother and daughter of Cromwell and
several others. They were cast out of the abbey, and were
reburied in the churchyard of St Margaret's. "But that regard,"
says Johnson, " which was denied his body has been paid to his
better remains, his name and hjs memory. Nor has any writer
dared to deny him the praise of intrepidity, honesty, contempt
of wealth, and love of his country." Clarendon bears the follow-
ing testimony to his excellence as a commander: — " He was the
first man that declined the old track, and made it apparent that
the science might be attained in less time than was imagined.
He was the first man that brought ships to contemn castles on the
shore, which had ever been thought very formidable, but were
discovered by him to make a noise only, and to fright those who
could be rarely hurt by them."

A life of Blake is included in the work entitled Lives, English and
Foreign. Dr Johnson wrote a short life of him, and in 1852 appeared
Hepworth Dixon's fuller narrative, Robert Blake, Admiral and
General at Sea. Much new matter for the biography of Blake will
be fourid in the Letters and Papers Relating to the First Dutch War,
edited by S. R. Gardiner for the Navy Records Society (1898-1899.)

BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827), English poet and painter,
was born in London, on the 28th of November 1757. His father,
James Blake, kept a hosier's shop in Broad Street, Golden Square;
and from the scanty education which the young artist received,
it may be judged that the circumstances of the family were not
very prosperous. For the facts of William Blake's early life
the world is indebted to a little book, called A Father's
Memoirs on a Child, written by Dr Malkin in 1806. Here we
learn that young Blake quickly developed a taste for design,
which his father appears to have had sufficient intelligence to
recognize and assist by every means in his power. At the age of
ten the boy was sent to a drawing school kept by Henry Pars
in the Strand, and at the same time he was already cultivating
his own taste by constant attendance at the different art sale
rooms, where he was known as the " little connoisseur " Here
he began to collect prints after Michelangelo, and Raphael,
Diirer and Heemskerk, while at the school in the Strand he
had the opportunity of drawing from the antique. After four
years of this preliminary instruction Blake entered upon another
branch of art study. In 1777 he was apprenticed to James
Basire, an engraver of repute, and with him he remained seven
years. His apprenticeship had an important bearing on Blake's
artistic education, and marks the department of art in which
he was made technically proficient. In 1778, at the end of his
apprenticeship, he proceeded to the school of the Royal Academy,
where he continued his early study from the antique, and had
for the first time an opportunity of drawing from the living model.

This is in brief all that is known of Blake's artistic education.
That he ever, at the academy or elsewhere, systematically
studied painting we do not know; but that he had already
begun the practice of water colour for himself is ascertained.
So far, however, the course of his training in art schools, and
under Basire, was calculated to render him proficient only as a
draughtsman and an engraver. He had learned how to draw,
and he had mastered besides the practical difficulties of engraving,
and with these qualifications he entered upon his career. In 1780
he exhibited a picture in the Royal Academy Exhibition, con-
jectured to have been executed in water colours, and he continued
to contribute to the annual exhibitions up to the year 1808.
In 1782 he married Catherine Boucher, the daughter of a market-
gardener at Battersea, with whom he lived always on affectionate
terms, and the young couple after -their marriage established
themselves in Green Street, Leicester Fields. Blake had already
become acquainted with some of the rising artists of his time,
amongst them Stothard, Flaxman and Fuseli, and he now began
to see something of literary society. At the house of the Rev.
Henry Mathew, in Rathbone Place, he used to recite and some-
times to sing poems of his own composition, and it was through
the influence of this gentleman, combined with that of Flaxman,
that Blake's first volume of poetry was printed and published in
1783. From this time forward the artist came before the
world in a double capacity. By education as well as native

BLAKE, WILLIAM

talent, he was pledged to the life of a painter, and these Poetical
Sketches, though they are often no more than the utterances of
a boy, are no less decisive in marking Blake as a future
poet.

For a while the two gifts are exhibited in association. To
the close of his life Blake continued to print and publish, after a
manner of his own, the inventions of his verse illustrated by
original designs, but there is a certain period in his career when
the union of the two gifts is peculiarly close, and when their
service to one another is unquestionable. In 1784 Blake, moving
from Green Street, set up in company with a fellow-pupil, Parker,
as print-seller and engraver next to his father's house in Broad
Street, Golden Square, but in 1787 this partnership was severed,
and he established an independent business in Poland Street.
It was from this house, and in 1787, that the Songs of Innocence
were published, a work that must always be remarkable for
beauty both of verse and of design, as well as for the singular
method by which the two were combined and expressed by the
artist. Blake became in fact Jais own printer and publisher.
He engraved upon copper, by a process devised by himself, both
the text of his poems and the surrounding decorative design,
and to the pages printed from the copper plates an appropriate
colouring was afterwards added by hand. The poetic genius
already discernible in the first volume of Poetical Sketches is
here more decisively expressed, and some of the songs in this
volume deserve to take rank with the best things of their kind in
our literature. In an age of enfeebled poetic style, when Words-
worth, with more weighty apparatus, had as yet scarcely begun
his reform of English versification, Blake, unaided by any con-
temporary influence, produced a work of fresh and living beauty;
and if the Songs of Innocence established Blake's claim to the
title of poet, the setting in which they were given to the world
proved that he was also something more. For the full develop-
ment of his artistic powers we have to wait till a later date,
but here at least he exhibits a just and original understanding of
the sources of decorative beauty. Each page of these poems
is a study of design, full of invention, and often wrought with
the utmost delicacy of workmanship. The artist retained to
the end this feeling for decorative effect; but as time went on,
he considerably enlarged the imaginative scope of his work,
and decoration then became the condition rather than the aim
of his labour.

Notwithstanding the distinct and precious qualities of this
volume, it attracted but slight attention, a fact perhaps not very
wonderful, when the system of publication is taken into account.
Blake, however, proceeded with other work of the same kind.
The same year he published The Book of Thel, more decidedly
mystic in its poetry, but scarcely less beautiful as a piece of
illumination; The Marriage of Heaven and Hell followed in
1790; and in 1793 there are added The Gates of Paradise, The
Vision of the Daughters of Albion, and some other " Prophetic
Books." It becomes abundantly clear on reaching this point
in his career that Blake's utterances cannot be judged by ordinary
rules. The Songs of Experience, put forth in 1 794 as a companion
to the earlier Songs of Innocence, are for the most part intelligible
and coherent, but in these intervening works of prophecy, as
they were called by the author, we get the first public expression
of that phase of his character and of his genius upon which a
charge of insanity has been founded. The question whether
Blake was or was not mad seems likely to remain in dispute,
but there can be no doubt whatever that he was at different
periods of his life under the influence of illusions for which
there are no outward facts to account, and that much of what
he wrote is so far wanting in the quality of sanity as to be without
a logical coherence. On the other hand, it is equally clear that
no madness imputed to Blake could equal that which would be
involved in the rejection of his work on this ground. The greatness
of Blake's mind is even better established than its frailty, and in
considering the work that he has left we must remember that
it is by the sublimity of his genius, and not by any mental defect,
that he is most clearly distinguished from his fellows. With
the publication of the Songs of Experience Blake's poetic career,

so far at least as ordinary readers are concerned, may be said to
close. A writer of prophecy he continued for many years, but
the works by which he is best known in poetry are those earlier
and simpler efforts, supplemented by a few pieces taken from
various sources, some of which were of later production. But
although Blake the poet ceases in a general sense at this date,
Blake the artist is only just entering upon his career. In the
Songs of Innocence and Experience, and even in some of the
earlier Books of Prophecy, the two gifts worked together in
perfect balance and harmony; but at this point the supremacy
of the artistic faculty asserts itself, and for the remainder of his
life Blake was pre-eminently a designer and engraver. The
labour of poetical composition continues, but the product
passes beyond the range of general comprehension; while, with
apparent inconsistency, the work of the artist gains steadily iv
strength and coherence, and never to the last loses its hold upon
the understanding. It may almost be said without exaggeration
that his earliest poetic work, The Songs of Innocence, and nearly
his latest effort in design, the illustrations to The Book of Job,
take rank among the sanest and most admirable products of
his genius. Nor is the fact, astonishing enough at first sight,
quite beyond a possible explanation. As Blake advanced in his
poetic career, he was gradually hindered and finally overpowered
by a tendency that was most serviceable to him in design. His
inclination to substitute a symbol for a conception, to make an
image do duty for an idea, became an insuperable obstacle to
literary success. He endeavoured constantly to treat the
intellectual material of verse as if it could be moulded into
sensuous form, with the inevitable result that as the ideas to
be expressed advanced in complexity and depth of meaning,
his poetic gifts became gradually more inadequate to the task
of interpretation. The earlier poems dealing with simpler
themes, and put forward at a time when the bent of the artist's
mind was not strictly determined, do not suffer from this difficulty;
the symbolism then only enriches an idea of no intellectual
intricacy; but when Blake began to concern himself with
profounder problems the want of a more logical understanding of
language made itself strikingly apparent. If his ways of thought
and modes of workmanship had not been developed with an
intensity almost morbid, he would probably have been able to
distinguish and keep separate the double functions of art and
literature. As it is, however, he remains as an extreme illustration
of the ascendancy of the artistic faculty. For this tendency to
translate ideas into image, and to find for every thought, however
simple or sublime, a precise and sensuous form, is of the essence
of pure artistic invention. If this be accepted as the dominant
bent of Blake's genius, it is not so wonderful that his work in
art should have strengthened in proportion as his poetic powers
waned; but whether the explanation satisfies all the require-
ments of the case or not, the fact remains, and cannot be over-
looked by any student of Blake's career.

In 1 796 Blake was actively employed in the work of illustration.
Edwards, a bookseller of New Bond Street, projected a new
edition of Young's Night Thoughts, and Blake was chosen to
illustrate the work. It was to have been issued in parts, but for
some reason not very clear the enterprise failed, and only a
first part, including forty-three designs, was given to the world.
These designs were engraved by Blake himself, and they are
interesting not only for their own merit but for the peculiar
system by which the illustration has been associated with the
text. It was afterwards discovered that the artist had executed
original designs in water-colour for the whole series, and these
drawings, 537 in number, form one of the most interesting
records of Blake's genius. Gilchrist, the painter's biographer,
in commenting upon the engraved plates, regrets the absence
of colour, " the use of which Blake so well understood, to relieve
his simple design and give it significance," and an examination
of the original water-colour drawings fully supports the justice
of his criticism. Soon after the publication of this work Blake
was introduced by Flaxman to the poet Hayley, and in the year
1 801 he accepted the suggestion of the latter, that he should
take up his residence at Felpham in Sussex. The mild and

3»

BLAKELOCK— BLAK.ESLEY

amiable poet had planned to write a life of Cowper, and for the
illustration of this and other works he sought Blake's help and
companionship. The residence at Felph'am continued for three
years, partly pleasant and partly irksome to Blake, but appar-
ently not very profitable to the progress of his art. One of the
annoyances of his stay was a malicious prosecution for traason
set on foot by a common soldier whom Blake had summarily
ejected from his garden; but a more serious drawback was the
increasing irritation which the painter seems to have experienced
from association with Hayley. In 1 804 Blake returned to London,
to take up his residence in South Moulton Street, and as the
fruit of his residence in Felpham, he published, in the manner
already described, the prophetic books called the Jerusalem,
The Emanation of the Giant Albion, and Milton. The first of these
is a very notable performance in regard to artistic invention.
Many of the designs stand out from the text in complete in-
dependence, and are now and then of the very finest quality.

In the years 1804-1805 Blake executed a series of designs
in illustration of Robert Blair's The Grave, of much beauty and
grandeur, though showing stronger traces of imitation of Italian
art than any earlier production. These designs were purchased
from the artist by an adventurous and unscrupulous publisher,
Cromek, for the paltry sum of £21, and afterwards published in a
series of engravings by Schiavonetti. Despite the ill treatment
Blake received in the matter, and the other evils, including
a quarrel with his friend Stothard as to priority of invention
of a design illustrating the Canterbury Pilgrims, which his
association with Cromek involved, the book gained for him a
larger amount of popularity than he at any other time secured.
Stothard's picture of the Canterbury Pilgrims was exhibited in
1807, and in 1809 Blake, in emulation of his' rival's success,
having himself painted in water-colour a picture of the same
subject, opened an exhibition, and drew up a Descriptive Catalogue,
curious and interesting, and containing a very valuable criticism
of Chaucer.

The remainder of the artist's life is not outwardly eventful.
In 1813 he formed, through the introduction of George Cumber-
land of Bristol, a valuable friendship with John Linnell and other
rising water-colour painters. Amongst the group Blake seems
to have found special sympathy in the society of John Varley,
who, himself addicted to astrology, encouraged Blake to cultivate
his gift of inspired vision; and it is probably to this influence
that we are indebted for several curious drawings made from
visions, especially the celebrated "ghost of a flea " and the very
humorous portrait of the builder of the Pyramids. In 182 1
Blake removed to Fountain Court; in the Strand, where he died
on the 1 2th of August 1827. The chief work of these last years
was the splendid series of engraved designs in illustration of the
book of Job. Here we find the highest imaginative qualities
of Blake's art united to the technical means of expression
which he best understood. Both the invention and the engraving
are in all ways remarkable, and the series may fairly be cited in
support of a very high estimate of his genius. None of his works
is without the trace of that peculiar artistic instinct and power
which seizes the pictorial element of ideas, simple or sublime,
and translates them into the appropriate language of sense;
but here the double faculty finds the happiest exercise. The
grandeur of the theme is duly reflected in the simple and sublime
images of the artist's design, and in the presence of these plates
we are made to feel the power of the artist over the expressional
resources of human form, as well as his sympathy with the
imaginative significance of his subject.

A life of Blake, with selections from his works, by Alexander
Gilchrist, was published in 1863 (new edition by W. G. Robertson,
1906) ; in 1868 A. C. Swinburne published a critical essay on his
genius, remarkable for a full examination of the Prophetic Books,
and in 1874 William Michael Rossetti published a memoir prefixed
to an edition of the poems. In 1893 appeared The Works of William
Blake, edited by E. J. Ellis and W. B. Yeats. But for a long time
all the editors paid too little attention to a correct following of
Blake's own MSS. The text of the poems was finally edited with
exemplary care and thoroughness by John Sampson in his edition
of the Poetical Works (1905), which has rescued Blake from the
" improvements " of previous editors. See also The Letters of

William Blake, together . with a Life by Frederick Tatham; edited
by A. G. B. Russell (1906); and Basil de Selincourt, William, Blake
(1909). (J. C. C.)

BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT (1847- ), American
painter, was born in New York, on the 15th of October, 1847.
He graduated at the College of the City of New York in 1867.
In art he was self-taught and markedly original. Until ill-health
necessitated the abandonment of his profession, he was a most
prolific worker, his subjects including pictures of North American
Indian life, and landscapes — notably such canvases as "The
Indian Fisherman"; "Ta-wo-koka: or Circle Dance";
"Silvery Moonlight"; "A Waterfall by Moonlight"; "Soli-
tude"; and "Moonlight on Long Island Sound."

BLAKENEY, WILLIAM BLAKENEY, Baron (1672-1761),
British soldier, was born. at Mount Blakeney in Limerick in 1672.
Destined by his father for politics, he soon showed a decided
preference for a military career, and at the age of eighteen headed
the tenants in defending the Blakeney estate against the Rap-
parees. As a volunteer he went to the war in Flanders, and at
the siege of Venlo in 1702 won his commission. He served as
a subaltern throughout Marlborough's campaigns, and is said
to have been the first to drill troops by signal of drum or colour.
For many years after the peace of Utrecht he served unnoticed,
and was sixty-five years of age before he became a colonel.
This neglect, which was said to be due to the hostility of Lord
Verney, ceased when the duke of Richmond was appointed
colonel of Blakeney's regiment, and thenceforward his advance
was rapid. Brigadier-general in the Cartagena expedition of
1741, and major-general a little later, he distinguished himself
by his gallant and successful defence of Stirling Castle against
the Highlanders in 1745. Two years later George II. made him
lieutenant-general and lieutenant-governor of Minorca. The
governor of that island never set foot in it, and Blakeney was
left in command for ten years.

In 1756 the Seven Years' War was preluded by a swift descent
of the French on Minorca. Fifteen thousand troops under
marshal the due de Richelieu, escorted by a strong squadron
under the marquis de la Gallisonniere, landed on the island on
the 1 8th of April, and at once began the siege of Fort St Philip,
where Blakeney commanded at most some 5000 soldiers and
workmen. The defence, in spite of crumbling walls and rotted
gun platforms, had already lasted a month when a British fleet
under vice-admiral the Hon. John Byng appeared. La Gallison-
niere and Byng fought, on the 20th of May, an indecisive battle,
after which the relieving squadron sailed away and Blakeney
was left to his fate. A second expedition subsequently appeared
off Minorca, but it was then too late, for after a heroic resistance
of -seventy-one days the old general had been compelled to
surrender the fort to Richelieu (April 18-June 28, 1756). Only
the ruined fortifications were the prize of the victors. Blakeney
and his little garrison were transported to Gibraltar with absolute
liberty to serve again. Byng was tried and executed; Blakeney,
on his return to England, found himself the hero of the nation.
Rewards came freely to the veteran. He was made colonel of
the Enniskillen regiment of infantry, knight of the Bath, and
Baron Blakeney of Mount Blakeney in the Irish peerage. A
little later Van Most's statue of him was erected in Dublin, and
his popularity continued unabated for the short remainder of
his life. He died on the 20th of September 1761, and was buried
in Westminster Abbey.
, See Memoirs of General William Blakeney (1757).

BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS (1808-1885), English
divine, was born in London on the 6th of March 1808, and was
educated at St Paul's school, London, and at Corpus Christi and
Trinity Colleges, Cambridge. In 1831 he was elected a fellow,
and in 1839 a tutor of Trinity. In 1833 he took holy orders, and
from 1845 to 1872 held the college living of Ware, Hertfordshire.
Over the signature " Hertfordshire Incumbent " he contributed
a large number of letters to The Times on the leading social and
political subjects of the day, and he also wrote many reviews of
books for that paper. In 1863 he was made a canon of Canter-
bury, and in 1872 dean of Lincoln. Dean Blakesley was the

BLAMIRE— BLANC, MONT

author of the first English Life of Aristotle (1839), an edition of
Herodotus (1852-1854) in the Bibliotheca Classica, and Four
Months in Algeria (1859). He died on the 18th of April 1885.

BLAMIRE, SUSANNA (1747-1794), English poet, daughter of
a Cumberland yeoman, was born at Cardew Hall, near Dalston,
in January 1 747. Her mother died while she was a child, and she
was brought up by her aunt, a Mrs Simpson of Thackwood, who
sent her niece to the village school at Raughton Head. Susanna
Blamire's earliest poem is " Written in a Churchyard, on seeing
a number of cattle grazing," in imitation of Gray. She lived an
uneventful life among the farmers of the neighbourhood, and her
gaiety and good-humour made her a favourite in rustic society.
In 1767 her elder sister Sarah married Colonel Graham of Gart-
more. " An Epistle to her friends at Gartmore " gives a playful
description of the monotonous simplicity of her life. To her
Perthshire visits her songs in the Scottish vernacular are no
doubt partly due. Her chief friend was Catharine Gilpin of
Scaleby Castle. The two ladies spent the winters together in
Carlisle, and wrote poems in common. Susanna Blamire died
in Carlisle on the 5th of April 1794. The poems which were not
collected during her lifetime, were first published in 1842 by
Henry Lonsdale as The Poetical Works of Miss Susanna Blamire,
" the Muse of Cumberland," with a memoir by Mr Patrick
Maxwell. Some of her songs rank among the very best of north-
country lyrics. " And ye shall walk in silk attire " and " What
ails this heart o' mine," are well known, and were included in
Johnson's Scots' Musical Museum.

BLANC, (Jean Joseph Charles) LOUIS (1811-1882), French
politician and historian, was born on the 29th of October 181 1
at Madrid, where his father held the post of inspector-general of
finance under Joseph Bonaparte. Failing to receive aid from
Pozzo di Borgo, his mother's uncle, Louis Blanc studied law in
Paris, living in poverty, and became a contributor to various
journals. In the Revue du progrbs, which he founded, he published
in 1839 his study on L' Organisation du travail. The principles
laid down in this famous essay form the key to Louis Blanc's
whole political career. He attributes all the evils that afflict
society to the pressure of competition, whereby the weaker are
driven to the wall. He demanded the equalization of wages, and
the merging of personal interests in the common good — ■" &
chacun selon ses besoins, de chacun selon ses facultes." This was
to be effected by the establishment of " social workshops," a sort
of combined co-operative society and trade-union, where the
workmen in each trade were to unite their efforts for their
common benefit. In 1841 he published his Histoire de dix ans
1830-1840, an attack upon the monarchy of July. It ran through
four editions in four years.

In 1847 he published the two first volumes of his Histoire de la
Revolution Francaise. Its publication was interrupted by the
revolution of 1848, when Louis Blanc became a member of the
provisional government. It was on his motion that, on the 25th
of February, the government undertook " to guarantee the
existence of the workmen by work "; and though his demand
for the establishment of a ministry of labour was refused — as
beyond the competence of a provisional government — he was
appointed to preside over the government labour commission
{Commission du Gouvernement pour les travailleurs) established
at the Luxembourg to inquire into and report on the labour
question. On the 10th of May he renewed, in the National
Assembly, his proposal for a ministry of labour, but the temper
of the majority was hostile to socialism, and the proposal was
again rejected. His responsibility for the disastrous experiment
of the national workshops he himself denied in his Appel aux
honnltes gens (Paris, 1849), written in London after his flight;
but by the insurgent mob of the 15th of May and by the victorious
Moderates alike he was regarded as responsible. Between the
sansculottes, who tried to force him to place himself at their head,
and the national guards, who maltreated him, he was nearly done
to death. Rescued with difficulty, he escaped with a false
passport to Belgium, and thence to London; in his absence he
was condemned by the special tribunal established at Bourges,
in contumaciam, to deportation. Against trial and sentence he

alike protested, developing his protest in a series of articles in the
Nouveau Monde, a review published in Paris under his direction.
These he afterwards collected and published as Pages de I'histoire
de la revolution de 1848 (Brussels, 1850).

During his stay in England he /made use of the unique collection
of materials for the revolutionary period preserved at the
British Museum to complete his Histoire dela Resolution Franqaise
12 vols. (1847-1862). In 1858 he published a reply to Lord
Normanby's A Year of Revolution in Paris (1858), which he
developed later into his Histoire de la revolution de 1848 (2 vols.,
1870-1880). As far back as 1839 Louis Blanc had vehemently
opposed the idea of a Napoleonic restoration, predicting that it
would be "despotism without glory," " the Empire without the
Emperor." He therefore remained in exile till the fall of the
Second Empire in September 1870, after which he returned to
Paris and served as a private in the national guard. On the 8th
of February 187 1 he was elected a member of the National
Assembly, in which he maintained that the republic was " the
necessary form of national sovereignty," and voted for the
continuation of the war; yet, though a member of the extreme
Left, he was too clear-minded to sympathize with the Commune,
and exerted his influence in vain on the side of moderation. In
1878 he advocated the abolition of the presidency and the senate.
In January 1879 he introduced into the chamber a proposal for
the amnesty of the Communists, which was carried. This was
his last important act. His declining years were darkened by
ill-health and by the death, in 1876, of his wife (Christina Groh),
an Englishwoman whom he had married in 1865. He died at
Cannes on the 6th of December 1882, and on the 12th of December
received a state funeral in the cemetery of Pere-Lachaise.

Louis Blanc possessed a picturesque and vivid style, and
considerable power of research; but the fervour with which he
expressed his convictions, while placing him in the first rank of
orators, tended to turn his historical writings into political
pamphlets. His political and social ideas have had a great
influence on the development of socialism in France. His
Discours politiques (1847-1881) was published in 1882. His
most important works, besides those already mentioned, are
Lettres sur I'Angleterre (1866-1867), Dix annees de I'histoire de
l' Angleterre (1879-1881), and Questions d'aujourd'hui et de demain

(1873-1884).

See L. Fiaux, Louis Blanc (1883).

BLANC, MONT, the culminating point (15,782 ft.) of the
mountain range of the same name, which forms part of the
Pennine Alps, and is divided unequally between France, Italy
and Switzerland. The actual highest summit is wholly French
and is the loftiest peak in the Alps, and in Europe also, if certain
peaks in the Caucasus be excluded. At Geneva the mountain
was in former days named the Montagne Maudite, but the
present name seems to have been always used locally. On the
north is the valley of Chamonix, and on the east the head of the
valley of Aosta. Among the great glaciers which stream from the
peak the most noteworthy are those of Bossons and Taconnaz
(northern slope) and of Brenva and Miage (southern slope).
The first ascent was made in 1 786 by two Chamonix men, Jacques
Balmat and Dr Michel Paccard, and the second in 1 787 by Balmat
with two local men. Later in 1787 H. B. de Saussure made the
third ascent, memorable in many respects, and was followed a
week later by Colonel Beaufoy, the first Englishman to gain the
top. These ascents were all made from Chamonix, which is still
the usual starting point, though routes have been forced up the
peak from nearly every side, those on the Italian side being much
steeper than that from Chamonix. The ascent from Chamonix
is now frequently made in summer (rarely in winter also), but,
owing to the great height of the mountain, the view is unsatis-
factory, though very extensive (Lyons is visible). There is an inn
at the Grands Mulets (9909 ft.). In 1890 M. Vallot built an
observatory and shelter hut (14,312 ft.) on the Bosses du Droma-
daire (north-west ridge of the mountain), and in 1893 T. J. C.
Janssen constructed an observatory just below the very summit.

SeeC.Durier, Le Mont Blanc (4th ed., Paris, 1897) ; C.E.Mathews,
The Annals of Mont Blanc (London. 1898); P. Giissfeldt, Der

Montblanc (Berlin, 1894, also a French translation, Geneva, I
L. Kurz, Climbers' Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc, section vi.
(London, 1892) ; L. Kurz and X. Imfeld, Carte de la chaine du Mont
Blanc (1896, new edition 1905). (W. A. B. C.)

BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN (1804-1845), British author
and journalist, the son of a painter and glazier, was born at Great
Yarmouth on the 15th of May 1804. He was educated at St
Olave's school, Southwark, and then became clerk to a proctor
in Doctors' Commons. At an early age he developed literary
tastes, contributing dramatic sketches to a paper called Drama.
For a short time he was a member of a travelling dramatic
company, but subsequently became a proof-reader in London,
and wrote for the Monthly Magazine. In 1827 he was made
secretary of the Zoological Society, a post which he held for three
years. In 1828 he published Lyric Offerings, dedicated to Charles
Lamb. He had a verj varied journalistic experience, editing in
succession the Monthly Magazine, the True Sun, the Constitu-
tional, the Court Journal, the Courier, and George Cruikshank's
Omnibus; and from 1841 till his death he was connected with
the Examiner. In 1846 Bulwer-Lytton collected a number of his
prose-essays under the title Sketches of Life, to which a memoir of
the author was prefixed. His verse was collected in 1876 by
Blanchard Jerrold. Over-work broke down his strength, and,
unnerved by the death of his wife, he died by his own hand on
the 15th of February 1845.

His eldest son, Sidney Laman Blanchard, who was the author
of Yesterday and To-day in India, died in 1883.

BLANCHE, JACQUES EMILE ( 1 86 1- ) , French painter, was
born in Paris. He enjoyed an excellent cosmopolitan education,
and was brought up at Passy in a house once belonging to the
princesse de Lamballe, which still retained the atmosphere of
18th-century elegance and refinement and influenced his taste
and work. Although he received some instruction in painting
from Gervex, he may be regarded as self-taught. He acquired a
great reputation as a portrait painter; his art is derived from
French and English sources, refined, sometimes super-elegant,
but. full of character. Among his chief works are his portraits of
his father, of Pierre Louys, the Thaulow family, Aubrey Beardsley
and Yvette Guilbert.

BLANCHE OF CASTILE (1188-1252), wife of Louis VIII. of
France, third daughter of Alphonso VIII., king of Castile, and of
Eleanor of England, daughter of Henry II., was born at Valencia.
In consequence of a treaty between Philip Augustus and John of
England, she was betrothed to the former's son, Louis, and was
brought to France, in the spring of 1200, by John's mother
Eleanor. On the 22nd of May 1200 the treaty was finally signed,
John ceding with his niece the fiefs of Issoudun and Gracay,
together with those that Andre de Chavigny, lord of Chateauroux,
held in Berry, of the English crown. The marriage was celebrated
the next day, at Portmort on the right bank of the Seine, in John's
domains, as those of Philip lay under an interdict.

Blanche first displayed her great qualities in 1216, when Louis,-
who on the death of John claimed the English crown in her right,
invaded England, only to find a united nation against him. Philip
Augustus refused to help his son, and Blanche was his sole
support. The queen established herself at Calais and organized
two fleets, one of which was commanded by Eustace the Monk,
and an army under Robert of Courtenay; but all her resolution
and energy were in vain. Although it would seem that her
masterful temper exercised a sensible influence upon her
husband's gentler character, her role during his reign (1223-1226)
is not well known. Upon his death he left Blanche regent and
guardian of his children. Of her twelve or thirteen children, six
had died, and Louis, the heir — afterwards the sainted Louis IX.,
— was but twelve years old. The situation was critical, for the
hard- won domains of the house of Capet seemed likely to fall to
pieces during a minority. Blanche had to bear the whole burden
of affairs alone, to break up a league of the barons (1226), and to
repel the attack of the king of England (1 230). But her" energy
and firmness overcame all dangers. There was an end to the
calumnies circulated against her, based on the poetical homage
rendered her by Theobald IV., count of Champagne, and the

BLANCHARD— BLANDRATA

prolonged stay in Paris of the papal legate, Romano Bonaventura,
cardinal of Sant' Angelo. The nobles were awed by her warlike
preparations or won over by adroit diplomacy, and their league
was broken up. St Louis owed his realm to his mother, but
he himself always remained somewhat under the spell of her
imperious personality. After he came of age (1236) her influence
upon him may still be traced. In 1248 she again became regent,
during Louis IX. 's absence on the crusade, a project which she
had strongly opposed. In the disasters which followed she main-
tained peace, while draining the land of men and money to aid
her son in the East. At last her strength failed her. She fell ill
at Melun in November 1252, and was taken to Paris, but lived
only a few days. She was buried at Maubuisson.

Besides the works 'of Joinville and William of Nangis, see FJie
Berger, " Histoire de Blanche de Castille, reine de France," in
Bibliotheque des ecoles franqaises d'Athenes et de Rome { vol. lxx.
(Paris, 1895) ; Le Nain de Tillemont, " Vie de Saint Louis," ed. by
J. de Gaulle for the Societe de I'histoire de France (6 vols., 1847-
1851) ; and Paulin Paris, " Nouvelles recherches sur les mceurs de la
reine Blanche et de Thibaud," in Cabinet historique (1858).

BLANCH FEE, or Blanch Holding (from Fr. blanc, white),
an ancient tenure in Scottish land law, the duty payable being in
silver or white money in contradistinction to gold. The phrase
was afterwards applied to any holding of which the quit-rent was
merely nominal, such as a penny, a peppercorn, &c.

BLANDFORD, or Blandford Forum, a market town, and
municipal borough in the northern parliamentary division of
Dorsetshire, England, on the Stour, 19 m. N.W. of Bournemouth
by the Somerset & Dorset railway. Pop. (1901) 3649. The
town is ancient, but was almost wholly destroyed by fire in the
1 8th century. The church of St Peter and St Paul, a classical
building, was built in 1732. There are a grammar-school
(founded in 1521 at Milton Abbas, transferred to Blandford in
1775), a Blue Coat school (1729), and other educational charities.
Remnants of a mansion of the 14th century, Damory Court, are
seen in a farmhouse, and an adjoining Perpendicular chapel is
used as a barn. There are numerous early earthworks on the
chalk hills in the neighbourhood. The fine modern mansion of
Bryanston, in the park adjoining the town, is the seat of Lord
Portman. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 145 acres.

BLANDRATA, or Biandrata, GIORGIO (c. 1515-1588),
Italian physician and polemic, who came of the De Blandrate
family, powerful from the early part of the 13th century, was
born at Saluzzo, the youngest son of Bernardino Biandrata.
He graduated in arts and medicine at Montpellier in 1533, and
specialized in the functional and nervous disorders of women.
In 1544 he made his first acquaintance with Transylvania;
in 1553 he was with Alciati in the Grisons; in 1557 he spent a
year at Geneva, in constant intercourse with Calvin, who dis-
trusted him. He attended the English wife (Jane Stafford) of
Count Celso Massimiliano Martinengo, preacher of the Italian
church at Geneva, and fostered anti-trinitarian opinions in that
church. In 1558 he found it expedient to remove to Poland,
where he became a leader of the heretical party at the synods
of Pinczow (1558) and Ksionzh (1560 and 1562). His point
was the suppression of extremes of opinion, on the basis of a
confession literally drawn from Scripture. He obtained the
position of court physician to the queen dowager, the Milanese
Bona Sforza. She had been instrumental in the burning (1539)
of Catharine Weygel, at the age of eighty, for anti-trinitarian
opinions; but the writings of Ochino had altered her views,
which were now anti-Catholic. In 1563 Biandrata transferred
his services to the Transylvanian court, where the daughters
of his patroness were married to ruling princes. He revisited
Poland (1576) in the train of Stephen Bathory, whose tolerance
permitted the propagation of heresies; and when (1579) Chris-
topher Bathory introduced the Jesuits into Transylvania,
Biandrata found means of conciliating them. Throughout his
career he was accompanied by his two brothers, Ludovico and
Alphonso, the former being canon of Saluzzo. In Transylvania,
Biandrata co-operated with Francis David (d. 1579), the anti-
trinitarian bishop, but in 1578 two circumstances broke the

BLANE— BLANK VERSE

connexion. Blaridrata was charged with "Italian vice";
David renounced the worship of Christ. To influence David,
Blandrata sent for Faustus Socinus from Basel. Socinus was
David's guest, but the discussion between them led to no result.
At the instance of Blandrata, David was tried and condemned
to prison at Deva (in which he died) on the charge of innovation.
Having amassed a fortune, Blandrata returned to the com-
munion of Rome. His end is obscure. According to the Jesuit,
Jacob Wujek, he was strangled by a nephew (Giorgio, son of
Alphonso) in May 1588. He published a few polemical writings,
some in conjunction with David.

See Malacarne, Commentario delle Opere e delle Vicende di G.
Biandrata (Padova, 1814); Wallace, Anti-trinitarian Biography,
vol. ii. (1850). (A. Go.*)

BLANE, SIR GILBERT (1740-1834), Scottish physician,
was born at Blanefield, Ayrshire, on the 29th of August 1749.
He was educated at Edinburgh university, and shortly after
his removal to London became private physician to Lord Rodney,
whom he accompanied to the West Indies in 1779. He did much
to improve the health of the fleet by attention to the diet of the
sailors and by enforcing due sanitary precautions, and it was
largely through him that in 1795 the use of lime-juice was made
obligatory throughout the navy as a preventive of scurvy.
Enjoying a number of court and hospital appointments he built
up a good practice for himself in London, and the government
constantly consulted him on questions of public hygiene. He
was made a baronet in 181 2 in reward for the services he rendered
in connexion with the return of the Walcheren expedition.
He died in London on the 26th of June 1834. Among his works
were Observations on the Diseases of Seamen (1795) and Elements
of Medical Logic (1819).

BLANFORD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1832-1905), English
geologist and naturalist, was born in London on the 7th of
October 1832. He was educated in private schools in Brighton
and Paris, and with a view to the adoption of a mercantile career
spent two years in a business house at Civita Vecchia. On return-
ing to England in 185 1 he was induced to enter the newly estab-
lished Royal School of Mines, which his younger brother Henry
F. Blanford (1834-1893), afterwards head of the Indian Meteoro-
logical Department, had already joined; he then spent a year
in the mining school at Freiburg, and towards the close of 1854
both he and his brother obtained posts on the Geological Survey
of India. In that service he remained for twenty-seven years,
retiring in 1882. He was engaged in various parts of India, in
the Raniganj coalfield, in Bombay, and in the coalfield near
Talchir, where boulders considered to have been ice-borne
were found in the Talchir strata — a remarkable discovery con-
firmed by subsequent observations of other geologists in equiva-
lent strata elsewhere. His attention was given not only to
geology but to zoology, and especially to the land-mollusca and
to the vertebrates. In 1866 he was attached to the Abyssinian
expedition, accompanying the army to Magdala and back;
and in 1871-1872 he was appointed a member of the Persian
Boundary Commission. The best use was made of the excep-
tional opportunities of studying the natural history of those
countries. For his many contributions to geological science
Dr Blanford was in 1883 awarded the Wollaston medal by the
Geological Society of London; and for his labours on the zoology
and geology of British India he received in 1901 a royal medal
from the Royal Society. He had been elected F.R.S. in 1874,
and was chosen president of the Geological Society in 1888.
He was created CLE. in 1904. He died in London on the 23rd
of June 1905. His principal publications were: Observations
on the Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia (1870), and Manual of
the Geology of India, with H. B. Medlicott (1879).

Biography, with bibliography and portrait, in Geological Magazine,
January 1905.

BLANK (from the Fr. blanc, white), a. word used in various
senses based on that of " left white," i.e. requiring something
to be filled in; thus a " blank cheque " is one which requires
the amount to be inserted, an insurance policy in blank, where
the name of the beneficiary is lacking, " blank verse " (q.v.)

verse without rhyme, " blank cartridge " that contains only
powder and no ball or shot. The word is also used, as a sub-
stantive, for a ticket in a lottery or sweepstake which does not
carry a number or the name of a horse running or for an
unstamped metal disc in coining.

BLANKENBERGHE, a seaside watering-place on the North
Sea in the province of West Flanders, Belgium, 12 m. N.E.
of Ostend, and about 9 m. N.W. of Bruges, with which it
is connected by railway. It is more bracing than Ostend, and
has a fine parade over a mile in length. During the season,
which extends from June to September, it receives a large
number of visitors, probably over 60,000 altogether, from
Germany as well as from Belgium. There is a small fishing port
as well as a considerable fishing-fleet. Two miles north of this
place along the dunes is Zeebrugge, the point at which the new
ship-canal from Bruges enters the North Sea. Fixed population
(1904) 5925.

BLANKENBURG. (1) A town and health resort of Germany,
in the duchy of Brunswick, at the N. foot of the Harz Mountains,
12 m. by rail S.W. from Halberstadt. Pop. (1901) 10,173. It
has been in large part rebuilt since a fire in 1836, and possesses
a castle, with various collections, a museum of antiquities, an old
town hall and churches. There are pine-needle baths and a
hospital for nervous diseases. Gardening is a speciality. In the
vicinity is a cliff or ridge of rock called Teufelsmauer (Devil's
wall), from which fine views are obtained across the plain and
into the deep gorges of the Harz Mountains.

(2) Another Blankenburg, also a health-resort, is situated
in Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, at the confluence of the
rivers Rinne and Schwarza, and at the entrance of the Schwar-
zatal. Its environs are charming, and to the north of it, on an
eminence, rise the fine ruins of the castle of Greifenstein, built
by the German king Henry I., and from 1275 to 1583 the seat
of a cadet branch of the counts of Schwarzburg.

BLANKETEERS, the nickname given to some 5000 operatives
who on the 10th of March 181 7 met in St Peter's Field, near
Manchester, to march to London, each carrying blankets or rugs.
Their object was to see the prince regent and lay their grievances
before him. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended, and the
leaders were seized and imprisoned. The bulk of the demon-
stration yielded at once. The few stragglers who persisted in
the march were intercepted by troops, and treated with consider-
able severity. Eventually the spokesmen had an interview with
the ministers, and some reforms were the result.

BLANK VERSE, the unrhymed measure of iambic deca-
syllable in five beats which is usually adopted in English epic
and dramatic poetry. The epithet is due to the absence of the
rhyme which the ear expects at the end of successive lines. The
decasyllabic line occurs for the first time in a Provencal poem
of the 10th century, but in the earliest instances preserved it is
already constructed with such regularity as to suggest that it
was no new invention. It was certainly being used almost
simultaneously in the north of France. Chaucer employed it
in his Compleynte to Pitie about 1370. In all the literatures of
western Europe it became generally used, but always with
rhyme. In the beginning of the 16th century, however, certain
Italian poets made the experiment of writing decasyllables
without rhyme. The tragedy of Sophonisba (1515) of G. G.
Trissino (1478-1550) was the earliest work completed in this
form; it was followed in 1525 by the didactic poem Le Apt
(The Bees), of Giovanni Rucellai (1475-1525), who announced
his intention of writing " Con verso Etrusco dalle rime sciolto,"
in consequence of which expression this kind of metre was called
versi sciolti or blank verse. In a very short time this form was
largely adopted in Italian dramatic poetry, and the comedies
of Ariosto, the Aminta of Tasso and the Pastor Fido of Guarini
are composed in it. The iambic blank verse of Italy was, how-
ever, mainly hendecasyllabic, not decasyllabic, and under French
influences the habit of rhyme soon returned.

Before the close of Trissino's life, however, his invention had
been introduced into another literature, where it was destined
to enjoy a longer and more glorious existence. Towards the

BLANQUI, J. A.— BLANQUI, L. A.

close of the reign of Henry VIII., Henry Howard, earl of Surrey,
translated two books of the Aeneid into English rhymeless verse,
" drawing " them '* into a strange metre." Surrey's blank verse
is stiff and timid, permitting itself no divergence from the exact
iambic movement: —

"Who can express the slaughter of that night,

Or tell the number of the corpses slain,

Or can in tears bewail them worthily?

The ancient famous city falleth down,

That many years did hold such seignory."

Surrey soon found an imitator in Nicholas Grimoald, and in
1562 blank verse was first applied to English dramatic poetry
in the Gorboduc of Sackville and Norton. In 1576, in the Steel
Glass of Gascoigne, it was first used for satire, and by the year
1585 it had come into almost universal use for theatrical purposes.
In Lyly's The Woman in the Moon and Peek's Arraignment of
Paris (both of 1584) we find blank verse struggling with rhymed
verse and successfully holding its own. The earliest play written
entirely in blank verse is supposed to be The Misfortunes of
Arthur (1587) of Thomas Hughes. Marlowe now immediately
followed, with the magnificent movement of his Tamburlaine
(1589), which was mocked by satirical critics as " the swelling
bombast of bragging blank verse" (Nash) and " the spacious
volubility of a drumming decasyllable " (Greene), but which
introduced a great new music into English poetry, in such
" mighty lines "as

" Still climbing after knowledge infinite,
And always moving as the restless spheres,"

or: —

" See where Christ's blood streams in the firmament! "

Except, however, when he is stirred by a particularly vivid
emotion, the blank verse of Marlowe continues to be' monotonous
and uniform. It still depends too exclusively on a counting of
syllables. But Shakespeare, after having returned to rhyme
in his earliest dramas, particularly in The Two Gentlemen of
Verona, adopted blank verse conclusively about the time that
the career of Marlowe was closing, and he carried it to the greatest
perfection in variety, suppleness and fulness. He released it
from the excessive bondage that it had hitherto endured; as
Robert Bridges has said, " Shakespeare, whose early verse may
be described as syllabic, gradually came to write a verse depend-
ent on stress." In comparison with that of his predecessors and
successors, the blank verse of Shakespeare is essentially regular,
and his prosody marks the admirable mean between the stiffness
of his dramatic forerunners and the laxity of those who followed
him. Most of Shakespeare's lines conform to the normal type
of the decasyllable, and the rest are accounted for by familiar
and rational rules of variation. The ease and fluidity of his
prosody were abused by his successors, particularly by Beaumont
and Fletcher, who employed the soft feminine ending to excess ;
in Massinger dramatic blank verse came too near to prose, and
in Heywood and Shirley it was relaxed to the point of losing all
nervous vigour.

The later dramatists gradually abandoned that rigorous
difference which should always be preserved between the cadence
of verse and prose, and the example of Ford, who endeavoured
to revive the old severity of blank verse, was not followed. But
just as the form was sinking into dramatic desuetude, it took
new life in the direction of epic, and found its noblest proficient
in the person of John Milton. The most intricate and therefore
the most interesting blank verse which has been written is that
of Milton in the great poems of his later life. He reduced the
elisions, which had been frequent in the Elizabethan poets, to
law; he admitted an extraordinary variety in the number of
stresses; he deliberately inverted the rhythm in order to produce
particular effects; and he multiplied at will the caesurae or
breaks in a line. Such verses as

" Arraying with reflected purple and gold —
Shoots invisible virtue even to the deep —
Universal reproach, far worse to bear —
Me, me only, just object of his ire " — •
are not mistaken in rhythm, nor to be scanned by forcing them
to obey the conventional stress. They are instances, and

Paradise Lost is full of such, of Milton's exquisite art in ringing
changes upon the metrical type of ten syllables, five stresses and
a rising rhythm, so as to make the whole texture of the verse
respond to his poetical thought. Writing many years later
in Paradise Regained and in Samson Agonistes, Milton retained
his system of blank verse in its general characteristics, but he
treated it with increased dryness and with a certain harshness
of effect. It is certainly in his biblical drama that blank verse
has been pushed to its most artificial and technical perfection,
and it is there that Milton's theories are to be studied best; yet
it must be confessed that learning excludes beauty in some of
the very audacious irregularities which he here permits himself
in Samson Agonistes. Such lines as

" Made arms ridiculous, useless the forgery —
My griefs not only pain me as a lingering disease —
Drunk with idolatry, drunk with wine —
Justly, yet despair not of his final pardon " —

are constructed with perfect comprehension of metrical law, yet
they differ so much from the normal structure of blank verse that
they need to be explained, and to imitate them would be perilous.
A persistent weakness in the third foot has ever been the snare of
English blank verse, and it is this element of monotony and
dulness which Milton is ceaselessly endeavouring to obviate by
his wonderful inversions, elisions and breaks.

After the Restoration, and after a brief period of experiment
with rhymed plays, the dramatists returned to the use of blank
verse, and in the hands of Otway, Lee and Dryden, it recovered
much of its magnificence. In the 18th century, Thomson and
others made use of a very regular and somewhat monotonous
form of blank verse for descriptive and didactic poems, of which
the Night Thoughts of Young is, from a metrical point of view,
the most interesting. With these poets the form is little open to
licence, while inversions and breaks are avoided as much as
possible. Since the 18th century, blank verse has been subjected
to constant revision in the hands of Wordsworth, Coleridge,
Shelley, Keats, Tennyson, the Brownings and Swinburne, but
no radical changes, of a nature unknown to Shakespeare and
Milton, have been introduced into it.

See J. A. Symonds, Blank Verse (1895); Walter Thomas, Le
Decasyllabe romain et sa fortune en Europe (1904); Robert Bridges
Milton's Prosody (1894); Ed. Guest, A History of English Rhythms
(1882) ; J. Mothere, Les Theories du vers heroique anglais (1886) ;
J. Schipper, Englische Metrik (1881-1888). (E. G.)

BLANQUI, JEROME ADOLPHE (1798-1854), French econo-
mist, was born at Nice on the 21st of November 1798. Begin-
ning life as a schoolmaster in Paris, he was attracted to the study
of economics by the lectures of J. B. Say, whose pupil and assist-
ant he became. Upon the recommendation of Say he" was in
1825 appointed professor of industrial economy and of history
at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. In 1833 he succeeded
Say as professor of political economy at the same institution,
and in 1838 was elected a member of the Academie des Sciences
Morales et Politiques. In 1838 appeared his most important
work, Histoire de I'economie politique en Europe, depuis les
anciens jusqu'd nos jours. He was indefatigable in research,
and for the purposes of his economic inquiries travelled over
almost the whole of Europe and visited Algeria and the East.
He contributed much to our knowledge of the conditions of the
working-classes, especially in France. Other works of Blanqui
were De la situation Sconomique et morale de I'Espagne en 1846;
Resume de I'histoire du commerce et de Vindustrie (1826); PrScis
Mementaire d'economie politique (1826); Les Classes ouvrieres
en France (1848).

BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE (1805-1881), French publicist,
was born on the 8th of February 1805 at Puget-Theniers, where
his father, Jean Dominique Blanqui, was at that time sub-
prefect. He studied both law and medicine, but found his real
vocation in politics, and at once constituted himself a champion
of the most advanced opinions. He took an active part in the
revolution of July 1830, and continuing to maintain the doctrine
of republicanism during the reign of Louis Philippe, was con-
demned to repeated terms of imprisonment. Implicated in the
armed outbreak of the Soci6te des Saisons, of which he was a

BLANTYRE^BLASPHEMY

leading spirit, he was in the following year, 1840, condemned
to death, a sentence that was afterwards commuted to imprison-
ment for life. He was released by the revolution of 1848, only
to resume his attacks on existing institutions. The revolution,
he declared, was a mere change of name. The violence of the
Sociiti rSpublicaine centrale, which was founded by Blanqui to
demand a modification of the government, brought him into
conflict with the more moderate Republicans, and in 1849 ne
was condemned to ten years' imprisonment. In 1865, while
serving a further term of imprisonment under the Empire, he
contrived to escape, and henceforth continued his propaganda
against the government from abroad, until the general amnesty
of i860 enabled him to return to France. Blanqui's leaning
towards violent measures was illustrated in 1870 by two un-
successful armed demonstrations: one on the 12th of January
at the funeral of Victor Noir, the journalist shot by Pierre
Bonaparte; the other on the 14th of August, when he led an
attempt to seize some guns at a barrack. Upon the fall of the
Empire, through the revolution of the 4th of September, Blanqui
established the club and journal La patrie en danger. He was one
of the band that for a moment seized the reins of power on the
31st of October, and for his share in that outbreak he was again
condemned to death on the 17 th of March of the following year.
A few days afterwards the insurrection ' which established the
Commune broke out, and Blanqui 'was elected a member of the
insurgent government, but his detention in prison prevented
him from taking an active part. Nevertheless he was in 1872
condemned along with the other members of the Commune to
transportation; but on account of his broken health this
sentence was commuted to one of imprisonment. In 1879 he
was elected a deputy for Bordeaux; although the election was
pronounced invalid, Blanqui was set at liberty, and at once
resumed his work of agitation. At the end of 1880, after a speech
at a revolutionary meeting in Paris, he was struck down by
apoplexy, and expired on the 1st of January 1881. Blanqui's
uncompromising communism, and his determination to enforce
it by violence, necessarily brought him into conflict with every
French government, and half his life was spent in prison. Besides
his innumerable contributions to journalism, he published an
astronomical work entitled L'Eternite par les astres (1872), and
after his death his writings on economic and social questions
were collected under the title of Critique sociale (1885).

A biography by G. Geffroy, L'Enferme (1897), is highly coloured
and decidedly partisan.

BLANTYRE, the chief town of the Nyasaland protectorate,
British Central Africa. It is situated about 3000 ft. above the
sea in the Shire Highlands 306 m. by river and rail N.N.W. of
the Chinde mouth of the Zambezi. Pop. about 6000 natives
and 100 whites. It is the headquarters of the principal trading
firms and missionary societies in the protectorate. It is also a
station on the African trans-continental telegraph line. The
chief building is the Church of Scotland church, a fine red brick
building, a mixture of Norman and Byzantine styles, with lofty
turrets and white domes. It stands in a large open space and is
approached by an avenue of cypresses and eucalyptus. The
church was built entirely by native labour. Blantyre was
founded in 1876 by Scottish missionaries, and is named after the
birthplace of David Livingstone.

BLANTYRE (Gaelic, "the warm retreat"), a parish of
Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop.- (1901) 14,145. The parish lies a
few miles south-east of Glasgow, and contains High Blantyre
(pop. 2521), Blantyre Works (or Low Blantyre), Stonefield
and several villages. The whole district is rich in coal, the
mining of which is extensively carried on. Blantyre Works
(pop. 1683) was the birthplace of David Livingstone (1813-
1873) and his brother Charles (1821-1873), who as lads were
both employed as piecers in a local cotton-mill. The scanty
remains of Blantyre Priory, founded towards the close of the
13th century, stand on the left bank of the Clyde, almost opposite
the beautiful ruins of Bothwell Castle. High Blantyre and
Blantyre Works are connected with Glasgow by the Caledonian
railway. Stonefield (pop. 7288), the most populous place in

the parish, entirely occupied with mining, lies between High
Blantyre and Blantyre Works. Calderwood Castle on Rotten
Calder Water, near High Blantyre, is situated amid picturesque
scenery.

BLARNEY, a small town of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the mid
parliamentary division, 5 m. N.W. of the city of Cork on
the Cork & Muskerry light railway. Pop. (1901) 928. There
is a large manufacture of tweed. The name " blarney " has
passed into the language to denote a peculiar kind of persuasive
eloquence, alleged to be characteristic of the natives of Ireland.
The " Blarney Stone," the kissing of which is said to confer this
faculty, is pointed out within the castle. The origin of this
belief is not known. The castle, built c. 1446 by Cormac
McCarthy, was of immense strength, and parts of its walls are
as much as 18 ft. thick. To its founder is traced by some the
origin of the term " blarney," since he delayed by persuasion
and promises the surrender of the castle to the lord president.
Richard Millikin's song, " The Groves of Blarney " (c. 1798),
contributed to the fame of the castle, which is also bound up
with the civil history of the county and the War of the Great
Rebellion.

BLASHFIELD, EDWIN HOWLAND (1848- ), American

artist, was born on the 15th of December 1848 in New York City;
He was a pupil of Bonnat in Paris, and became (1888) a member
of the National Academy of Design in New York. For some
years a genre painter, he later turned to decorative work, marked
by rare delicacy and beauty of colouring. He painted mural
decorations for a dome in the manufacturers' building at the
Chicago Exposition of 1893; for the dome of the Congressional
library, Washington; for the capitol at St Paul, Minnesota;
for the Baltimore court-house; in New York City for the Appellate
court house, the grand ball-room of the Waldorf-Astoria hotel,
the Lawyers' club, and the residences of W. K. Vanderbilt and
Collis P. Huntington; and in Philadelphia for the residence of
George W. Drexel. With his wife he wrote Italian Cities (1900)
and edited Vasari's Lives of the Painters (1896), and was well
known as a lecturer and writer on art. He became president of
the Society of Mural Painters, and of the Society of American
Artists.

BLASIUS (or Blaise), SAINT, bishop of Sebaste or Sivas in
Asia Minor, martyred under Diocletian on the 3rd of February
316. The Roman Catholic Church holds his festival on the 3rd
of February, the Orthodox Eastern Church on the nth. His
flesh is said to have been torn with woolcombers' irons before he
was beheaded, and this seems to be the only reason why he has
always been regarded as the patron saint of woolcombers. In
pre-Reformation England St Blaise was a very popular saint,
and the council of Oxford in 1222 forbade all work on his festival.
Owing to a miracle which he is alleged to have worked on a child
suffering from a throat affection, who was brought to him on his
way to execution, St Blaise's aid has always been held potent in
throat and lung diseases. The woolcombers of England still
celebrate St Blaise's day with a procession and general festivities.
He forms one of a group of fourteen (i.e. twice seven) saints, who
for their help in time of need have been associated as objects of
particularly devoted worship in Roman Catholic Germany since
the middle of the 1 5th century.
See William Hone, Every Day Book, i. 210.

BLASPHEMY (through the Fr. from Gr. /3Xa<r0r;/wa, profane
language, slander, probably derived from root of J3\airTtii>, to
injure, and $1^17, speech), literally, defamation or evil speaking,
but more peculiarly restricted to an indignity offered to the
Deity by words or writing. By the Mosaic law death by stoning
was the punishment for blasphemy (Lev. xxiv. 16). The 77th
Novel of Justinian assigned death as the penalty, as did also the
Capitularies. The common law of England treats blasphemy as
an indictable offence. All blasphemies against God, as denying
His being, or providence, all contumelious reproaches of Jesus
Christ, all profane scoffing at the Holy Scriptures, or exposing
any part thereof to contempt or ridicule, are punishable by the
temporal courts with fine, imprisonment and also infamous
corporal punishment. An act of Edward VI. (1547; repealed

BLASS— BLASTING

r 553» and revived 1558) enacts that persons reviling the sacra-
ment of the Lord's Supper, by contemptuous words or otherwise,
shall suffer imprisonment. Persons denying the Trinity were
deprived of the benefit of the Act of Toleration by an act of 1688.
An act of 1697-1698, commonly called the Blasphemy Act,
enacts that if any person, educated in or having made profession
of the Christian religion, should by writing, preaching, teaching or
advised speaking, deny any one of the Persons of the Holy Trinity
to be God, or should assert or maintain that there are more gods
than one, or should deny the Christian religion to be true, or the
Holy Scriptures to be of divine authority, he should, upon the
first offence, be rendered incapable of holding any office or place
of trust, and for the second incapable of bringing any action, of
being guardian or executor, or of taking a legacy or deed of gift,
and should suffer three years' imprisonment without bail. It
has been held that a person offending under the statute is also
indictable at common law {Rex v. Carlisle, 1819, where Mr
Justice Best remarks, " In the age of toleration, when that
statute passed, neither churchmen nor sectarians wished to
protect in their infidelity those who disbelieved the Holy
Scriptures"). An act of 1812-1813 excepts from these enact-
ments " persons denying as therein mentioned respecting the
Holy Trinity," but otherwise the common and the statute law on
the subject remain as stated. In the case of Rex v. Woolston
(1728) the court declared that they would not suffer it to be
debated whether to write against Christianity in general was not
an offence punishable in the temporal courts at common law, but
they did not intend to include disputes between learned men on
particular controverted points.

The law against blasphemy has practically ceased to be put in
active operation. In 1841 Edward Moxon was found guilty of
the publication of a blasphemous libel (Shelley's Queen Mab), the
prosecution having been instituted by Henry Hetherington, who
had previously been condemned to four months' imprisonment
for a similar offence, and wished to test the law under which he
was punished. In the case of Cowan v. Milboum (1867) the
defendant had broken his contract to let a lecture-room to the
plaintiff, on discovering that the intended lectures were to
maintain that " the character of Christ is defective, and his
teaching misleading, and that the Bible is no more inspired than
any other book," and the court of exchequer held that the
publication of such doctrine was blasphemy, and the contract
therefore illegal. On that occasion the court reaffirmed the
dictum of Chief Justice Hale, that Christianity is part of the laws
of England. The commissioners on criminal law (sixth report)
remark that " although the law forbids all denial of the being and
providence of God or the Christian religion, it is only when
irreligion assumes the form of an insult to God and man that the
interference of the criminal law has taken place." In England
the last prominent prosecution for blasphemy was the case of
R. v. Ramsey &" Foote, 1883, 48 L.T. 739, when the editor,
publisher and printer of the Freethinker were sentenced to
imprisonment; but police court proceedings were taken as late
as 1908 against an obscure Hyde Park orator who had become a
public nuisance.

Profane cursing and swearing is made punishable by the
Profane Oaths Act 1745, which directs the offender to be brought
before a justice of the peace, and fined five shillings, two shillings
or one shilling, according as he is a gentleman, below the rank of
gentleman, or a common labourer, soldier, &c.

By the law of Scotland, as it originally stood, the punishment
of blasphemy was death, but by an act of 1825, amended in
1837, blasphemy was made punishable by fine or imprisonment
or both.

In France, blasphemy (which included, also, speaking against
the Holy Virgin and the saints, denying one's faith, or speaking
with impiety of holy things) was from very early times punished
with great severity. The punishment was death in various
forms, burning alive, mutilation, torture or corporal punishment.
In the United States the common law of England was largely
followed, and in most of the states, also, statutes were enacted
against the offence, but, as in England, the law is practically

never put in force. In Germany, the punishment for blasphemy
is imprisonment varying from one day to three years, according
to the gravity of the offence. To constitute the offence, the
blasphemy must be uttered in public, be offensive in character,
and have wounded the religious susceptibilities of some other
person. In Austria, whoever commits blasphemy by speech or
writing is liable to imprisonment for any term from six months
up to ten years, according to the seriousness of the offence.

BLASS, FRIEDRICH (1843-1907), German classical scholar,
was born on the 22nd of January 1843 at Osnabriick. After
studying at Gottingen and Bonn from i860 to 1863, he lectured at
several gymnasia and at the university of Konigsberg. In 1876
be was appointed extraordinary professor of classical philology
at Kiel, and ordinary professor in 1881. In 1892 he accepted a
professorship at Halle, where he died on the 5th of March 1907.
He frequently visited England, and was intimately acquainted
with leading British scholars. He received an honorary degree
from Dublin University in 1892, and his readiness to place the
results of his labours at the disposal of others, together with the
courtesy and kindliness of his disposition, won the respect of all
who knew him. Blass is chiefly known for his works in connexion
with the study of Greek oratory: Die griechische Beredsamkeit
von Alexander bis auf Augustus (1865); Die attische Beredsamkeit
(1868-1880; 2nd ed., 1887-1898), his greatest work; editions
for the Teubner series of Andocides (1880), Antiphon (1881),
Hypereides (1881, 1804), Demosthenes (Dindorf's ed., 1885),
Isocrates (1886), Dinarchus (1888), Demosthenes (Rehdantz' ed.,
1893), Aeschines (1896), Lycurgus, Leocrates (1902); Die
Rhythmen der atliscben Kunslprosa (1901); Die Rhythmen der
asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa (1905). Among his other
works are editions of Eudoxus of Cnidus (1887), the 'KB^vaiuv
iroKLTeia (4th ed., 1903), a work of great importance, and Bacchy-
lides (3rd. ed., 1904) ; Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch
(1902; Eng. trans, by H. St John Thackeray, 1905); Hermeneu-
tik und Kritik and Paldographie, Buchwesen, und Handschrijten-
kunde (vol. i. of Miiller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-
wissenschaft, 1891); JJber die Aussprache des Griechischen (1888;
Eng. trans, by W. J. Purton, 1890); Die Interpolationen in der
Odyssee (1904); contributions to Collitz's Sammlung der griechi-
schen Dialektinschriften; editions of the texts of certain portions
of the New Testament (Gospels and Acts). His last work was an.
edition of the Choephori (1906).

See notices in the Academy, March 16, 1907 (J. P. Mahaffy) ;
Classical Review, May 1907 (J. E. Sandys), which contains also a
review of Die Rhythmen der asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa.

BLASTING, the process of rending or breaking apart a solid
body, such as rock, by exploding within it or in contact with it
some explosive substance. The explosion is accompanied by the
sudden development of gas at a high temperature and under a
tension sufficiently great to overcome the resistance of the
enclosing body, which is thus shattered and disintegrated.
Before the introduction of explosives, rock was laboriously
excavated by hammer and chisel, or by the ancient process of
" fire-setting," i.e. building a fire against the rock, which, on
cooling, splits and flakes off. To hasten disintegration, water
was often applied to the heated rock, the loosened portion being
afterwards removed by pick or hammer and wedge. In modern
times blasting has become a necessity for the excavation of rock
and other hard material, as in open surface cuts, quarrying,
tunnelling, shaft-sinking and mining operations in general.

For blasting, a hole is generally drilled to receive the charge of
explosive. The depth and diameter of the hole and the quantity
of explosive used are all variable, depending on the character of
the rock and of the explosive, the shape of the mass to be blasted,
the presence or absence of cracks or fissures, and the position of the
hole with respect to the free surface of the rock. The shock of
a blast produces impulsive waves acting radially in all directions,
the force being greatest at the centre of explosion and varying
inversely as the square of the distance from the charge. This
is evidenced by the observed facts. Immediately surrounding
the explosive, the rock is often finely, splintered and crushed.
Beyond this is a zone in which it is completely broken and

BLASTING

displaced or projected, leaving an enveloping mass of more or
less ragged fractured rock only partially loosened. Lastly, the
diminishing waves produce vibrations which are transmitted to
considerable distances. Theoretically, if a charge of explosive be
tired in a solid material of perfectly homogeneous texture and at
a proper distance from the free surface, a conical mass will be
blown out to the full depth of the drill hole, leaving a funnel-
shaped cavity. No rock, however, is of uniform mineralogical
and physical character, so that in practice there is only a rough
approximation to the conical crater, even under the most favour-
able conditions. Generally, the shape of the mass blasted out is
extremely irregular, because of the variable texture of the rock
and the presence of cracks, fissures and cleavage planes. The
ultimate or resultant useful effect of the explosion of a confined
charge is in the direction where the least resistance is presented.
In the actual work of rock excavation it is only by trial, or by
deductions based on experience, that the behaviour of a given
rock can be determined and the quantity of explosive required
properly proportioned.

Blasting, as usually carried on, comprises several operations:
(i) drilling holes in the rock to be blasted; (2) placing in the hole
the charge of explosive, with its fuze; (3) tamping the charge, i.e.
compacting it and filling the remainder of the hole with some
suitable material for preventing the charge from blowing out
without breaking the ground; (4) igniting or detonating the
charge; (5) clearing away the broken material. The holes for
blasting are made either by hand, with hammer and drill or
jumper, or by machine drill, the latter being driven by steam,
compressed air, or electricity, or,in rare cases,by hydraulic power.
Drill holes ordinarily vary in diameter from 1 to 3 in., and in
depth from a few inches up to 15 or 20 ft. or more. The deeper
holes are made only in surface excavation of rock, the shallower,
to a maximum depth of say 12 ft., being suitable for tunnelling
and mining operations.

Hand Drilling. — -The work is either " single-hand " or " double-
hand." In single-hand drilling, the miner wields the hammer with
one hand, and with the other holds the drill or " bit," rotating it
slightly after every blow in order to keep the hole round and
prevent the drill from sticking fast; in double-hand work,
one man strikes, while the other holds and rotates the
drill. For large and deep holes, two hammermen are
sometimes employed.

A miner's drill is a steel bar, occasionally round but
generally of octagonal cross-section, one end of which is
forged out to a cutting edge (fig. 1). The edge of the drill
is made either straight, like that of a chisel, or with a
convex curve, the latter shape being best for very hard
rock. For hard rock the cutting edge should be rather
thicker and blunter, and therefore stronger, than for soft
rock. Drills are made of high-grade steel, as they must
FlG. I. be tempered accurately and uniformly. The diameter of
drill steel for hand work is usually from j to I in., and the
length of cutting edge, or gauge, of the drill is always greater
than the diameter of the shank, in the proportion of from 7 '4
to 4-3. Holes over 10 or 12 in. deep generally require the use of a
set of drills of different lengths and depending in number on the
depth required. The shortest drill, for starting the hole, has the
widest cutting edge, the edges of the others being successively
narrower and graduated to follow each other properly, as drill after
drill is dulled in deepening the hole. Thus the hole decreases
in diameter as it is made deeper. The miner's hammer (fig. 2)
ranges in weight from 3! to 4i ft for single-hand drilling, up to
8 or 10 ft for double-hand. If the hole is directed downward, a
little water is poured into it at intervals, to keep the cutting edge
of the drill cool and make a thin mud of the cuttings. From time
to time the hole is cleaned out by the " scraper " or " spoon," a

long slender iron bar, forged
in the shape of a hollow
semi-cylinder, with one end
flattened and turned over at
right angles. If the hole is
directed steeply upward and
the rock is dry, the cuttings
will run out continuously
during the drilling; other

ployed for drilling holes horizontally or upward. Other tools used
in connexion with rock-drilling are the pick and gad.

Holes drilled by hand usually vary in depth from say 18 to 36 in.,
according to the nature of the rock and purpose of the work, though
deeper holes are often made. For soft rock, single-hand drilling is
from 20 to 30% cheaper than double-hand, but this difference does
not hold good for the harder rocks. For these double-hand drilling
is preferable, and may even be
essential, to secure a reason-
able speed of work.

Machine Drills. — The intro-
duction of machine drills in
the latter part of the 19th cen-
tury exerted an important in-
fluence on the work of rock
excavation in general, and
specially on the art of mining.
By their use many great tun-
nels and other works involving
rock excavation under adverse
conditions have been rapidly

and successfully carried out.
Before the invention of

machine drills such work pro-
gressed slowly and with diffi-
culty. Nearly all machine

drills are of the reciprocating

or percussive type, in which

the drill bit is firmly clamped

to the piston rod and delivers

a rapid succession of strong .

blows on the bottom of the -

hole. The ordinary compressed

air drill (which may, for surface

work, be operated also by

steam) may be taken as an

illustration. The piston works

in a cylinder, provided with a

that of

Fig. 3. — Ingersoll-Sergeant
Mining Drill.

valve motion somewhat similar to
a steam-engine, together with an automatic device for
producing the necessary rotation of the piston and drill bit. While
at work the machine is mounted on a heavy tripod (fig. 3) ; or, if
underground, sometimes on an iron column or bar, firmly wedged in
position between the roof and floor, or side walls, of the tunnel or
mine working. As the hole is deepened, the entire drill head, is
gradually fed forward on its support by a screw feed, a succession
of longer and longer drill bits being used as required.

Among the numerous types and makes of percussion drill may
be named the following: — Adelaide, Climax, Darlington, Dubois-
Frangois, Ferroux, Froelich, Hirnant, Ingersoll, Jeffrey, Leyner,
McKiernan, Rand, Schram, Sergeant, Sullivan and Wood.

One of the simplest of the machine drills is the Darlington (figs. 4
and 5): a is the cylinder; 6, piston rod; c, bit; d,d, air inlets,

Inches 12

Figs. 4 and 5. — Darlington's Rock Drill.

Fig. 2. — Sledge-hammer.

wise the scraper is necessary, or a small pipe with a plunger like
a syringe is used for washing out the cuttings. The " jumper " is a
long steel bar, with cutting edges on one or both ends, which is
alternately raised and dropped in the hole by one or two men. In
rock work the jumper is rarely used except for holes directed steeply
downward, though for coal or soft shale or slate it may be em-

either being used according to the position of the drill while at
work; h, piston; j, rifle-bar for rotating piston and bit; k, ratchet
attached to j ; I, brass nut, screwed into h, and in which j works ;
/, chuck for holding drill-bit; n, air port communicating between
ends of cylinder, front and back of piston; 0, exhaust port. This
machine has no valve. From- its construction, the compressed air
(or steam) is always acting on the annular shoulder round the for-
ward end of the piston. The piston is thereby forced back on the

4-6

BLASTING

in-stroke until the port » is uncovered. This admits the compressed air
to the rear end of the cylinder, and as the area of this end of the piston
is much greater than that of the shoulder on the other end, the piston
is driven forward and strikes its blow. When it has advanced far
enough to cover the exhaust port o, the air behind the piston is
exhausted, and, under the constant inward pressure noted above,
the stroke is reversed. The rotation of piston and bit is caused by
the rifle-bar j. On the outward stroke, j, with its ratchet k, is free
to turn under a couple of pawls and springs, and consequently the
piston delivers its blow without rotation. On the inward stroke the
ratchet is held fast by the pawls, and the piston and bit are forced to
rotate through a small part of a revolution. The cylinder is fed
forward with respect to the shell r, by rotating the handle p, which
works a long screw-bar engaging with a nut on the under side of the
cylinder. The shell r is bolted to the clamp s, which in turn is
mounted on the hollow column or bar g, or on a tripod, according to
(he character of the work. By means of the adjustable clamp s,
the machine can be set for drilling a hole in any desired direction.
The drill makes from 400 to 800 strokes per minute.

The " New Ingersoll " drill, which may be taken as an example
of the numerous machines in which valves are used, is shown in
section in fig. 6. The steam or compressed air is distributed through
the ports alternately to the ends of the cylinder, by the reciprocations
of a spool-valve working in a chest mounted on the cylinder. The
movements of this valve are caused by the strokes of the main
piston, which, by means of the wide annular groove around the
middle of the piston, alternately open and close the spool-valve
exhaust ports. Fig. 3 shows the Ingersoll "Light Mining drill,"
as mounted on a tripod, and in position for drilling a hole vertically
downward. In the Leyner drill the drill-bit is not connected to
the piston, but is struck a quick succession of blows by the latter.
An important feature of this machine is the provision lor directing
a stream of water into the hole for clearing out the cuttings. For
this purpose the shank of the drill-bit is perforated longitudinally,
the water being supplied under pressure from a small tank, to which
compressed air is led.

A rock drill of entirely different design, the Brandt, has been
successfully used in Europe for driving railway tunnels. It is
operated by hydraulic power, the pressure water being supplied by
a pump. The hollow drill-bit, which has a serrated cutting edge, is
forced under heavy pressure against the bottom of the hole, and is
rotated slowly — at six to eight revolutions per minute — by a pair of
small hydraulic cylinders, thus grinding and crushing the rock instead
of chipping it. The bottom of the hole is kept clean and the drill-bit
cooled by a stream of water passing down through its hollow shank.
On account of its size and weight, this machine is not suitable for
mine work.

Most of the machine drills are made in a number of sizes, from
2 in. up to 5 in. diameter of cylinder, the larger sizes being capable
of drilling holes 5 in. diameter and 30 ft. deep. They range in weight
from say 95 to 690 lb for the drill head (unmounted), the tripods
weighing from 40 to 260 lb, exclusive of the weights placed for
stability on the tripod legs (fig. 3). The sizes in most common use
for mining are from 2.\ in. to 3^ in. diameter of cylinder. In rock of
average hardness the best drills make from 4 to 75 linear ft. of hole
per hour. For use in narrow veins, or other confined workings
underground, several extremely small and light compressed air
drills have been introduced, as, for example, the Franke and Wonder,
the first of which weighs complete only 16 lb, and the second 18 lb.
These drills are held in the hands of the miner in the required position,
and strike a rapid succession of light blows. A large number of
mechanical drills operated by hand power have been invented.
Some imitate hand-drilling in the mode of delivering the blow; in

has been successfully used in collieries, viz. rotary auger drills,
mounted on light columns and driven through gearing hy diminutive
motors. These are intended for boring in coal, slate or other similar
soft material. Hand augers resembling a carpenter's brace and bit
are also often used in collieries.

Whatever may be the method of drilling, after the hole has been
completed to the depth required, it is finally cleaned out by a scraper
or swab; or, when compressed air drills are used, by a jet of air
directed into the hole by a short piece of pipe connected through a
flexible hose with the compressed air supply pipe. The hole is then
ready for the charge.

Location and Arrangement of Holes. — For hand drilling in mining
the position of the holes is determined largely by the character and

Fig. 7.

shape of the face of rock to be blasted. The miner observes the
joints and cracks of the rock, placing the holes to take advantage
of them and so obtain the best result from the blast. In driving a
tunnel or drift, as in figs. 7 and 8, the rock joints can be made of
material assistance by beginning with hole No. I and following in
succession by Nos. 2, 3 and 4. Frequently the ore, or vein matter,
is separated from the wall-rock by a thin, soft layer of clay (D,D,
fig. 8). This would act almost as a free face, and the first holes of
the round would be directed at an angle towards it, for blasting out
a wedge; after which the positions of the other holes would be
chosen.

When machine drills are employed, less attention is given to
natural cracks or joints, chiefly because when the drill is once set up
several holes at
different angles
can be drilled in
succession by
merely swinging
the cylinder of
the machine into
a new position
with respect to
its m o u n t i ng.
According to one
method, the holes
are placed with

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 6. — New Ingersoll Drill.

others the drill-bit is caused to reciprocate by means of combinations
of crank and spring. None of these machines is entirely satisfactory,
and but few are in use.

Among percussion rock-drills operated by electricity are the
Bladray, Box, Durkee, Marvin and Siemens-Halske. The Marvin
drill works with a solenoid ; most of the others have crank and spring
movements for producing the reciprocations of the piston. Power
is furnished by a small electric motor, either mounted on the machine
itself, as with the Box drill, or more often standing on the ground
and transmitting its power through a flexible shaft. Although rather
frequently used, electric percussion drills cannot yet be considered
entirely successful, at least for mine service, in competition with
compressed air machines. Another type of electric drill, however,

some degree of symmetry, in roughly concentric rings, as shown
by figs. 9 and 10. The centre holes are blasted first, and are
followed by the others in one or more volleys as indicated by the
dotted lines. Another method is the " centre cut," in which the
holes are drilled in parallel rows on each side of the centre line of the
tunnel, drift or shaft. Those in the two rows nearest the middle are
directed towards each other, and enclose a prism of rock, which is
first blasted out by heavy charges, after which the rows of side holes
will break with relatively light charges.

Explosives.— A great variety of explosives are in use for blasting
purposes. Up to 1864, gunpowder was the only available
explosive, but in that year Alfred Nobel first applied nitro-
glycerin for blasting, and in 1867 invented dynamite. This
name was originally applied to his mixture of nitroglycerin
with kieselguhr, but now includes also other mechanical
mixtures or chemical compounds which develop a high
explosive force as compared with gunpowder. Besides these
there are the so-called nameless or safety explosives, used
in collieries where inflammable gases are given off from the
coal.

Gunpowder, or black powder, is seldom used for rock-
blasting, except in quarrying building-stone, where slow
explosives of relatively low power are desirable to avoid
shattering the stone, and in such collieries as do not require the
use of safety explosives. Gunpowder is exploded by deflagration,
by means of a fuze, and exerts a comparatively slow and rending
force. The high explosives, on the other hand, are exploded by
detonation, through the agency of a fuze and fulminating cap,
exerting a quick, shattering, rather than a rending force. Dyna-
mites and flameless explosives are made in a variety of strengths,
and are packed in waterproofed cartridges of different sizes. The
grades of dynamite most commonly employed contain from 35
to 60% of nitroglycerin; the stronger are used for tough rock
or deep holes, or for holes unfavourably placed in narrow mine
workings, as sometimes in shaft-sinking or tunnelling. When of
good quality high explosives are safer to handle than gunpowder,

BLASTING

as they cannot be ignited by sparks and are not so easily exploded.
The ordinary dynamites used in mining are about four times as
powerful as gunpowder.

Nitroglycerin in its liquid form is now rarely used for blasting,

Cartly because its full strength is not often necessary but chiefly
ecause of the difficulty and danger of transporting, handling and
charging it. If employed at all, it is charged in thin tinned plate
cases or rubber-cloth cartridges.

Blasting with Black Powder. — The powder is coarse-grained,
usually from | to fV in. in size, and is charged in paper cartridges,
8 to 10 in. long and of a proper diameter to fit loosely in the drill
hole. A piece of fuze, long enough to reach a little beyond the
mouth of the hole, is inserted in the cartridge and tied fast. For
wet holes paraffined paper is used, the miner waterproofing the joints
with grease. When more than one cartridge is required for the blast,
that which has the fuze attached is usually charged last. The
cartridges are carefully rammed down by a wooden tamping bar
and the remainder of the hole filled with tamping. This consists of
finely broken rock, dry clay or other comminuted material, carefully
compacted by the tamping bar on top of the charge. The fuze is a
cord, having in the centre a core of gunpowder, enclosed in several
layers of linen or hemp waterproofed covering. It is ignited by the
miner's candle or lamp, or by a candle end so placed at the mouth
of the hole that the flame must burn its way through the fuze cover-
ing. As the fuze burns slowly, at the rate of 2 or 3 ft. per minute,
the miner uses a sufficient length to allow him to reach a place of
safety.

For blasting in coal, " squibs " instead of fuzes are often used.
A squib is simply a tiny paper rocket, about | in. diameter by 3 in.
long, containing fine gunpowder and having a sulphur slow-match
at one end. It is fired into the charge through a channel in the
tamping. This channel may be formed by a piece of J in. gas pipe,
tamped in the hole and reaching the charge; or a " needle," a long
taper iron rod, is laid longitudinally in the hole, with its point
entering the charge, and after the tamping is finished, by carefully
withdrawing the needle a little channel is left, through which the
squib is fired. In this connexion it may be noted that for breaking
ground in gassy collieries several substitutes for explosives have
been used to a limited extent, e.g. plugs of dry wood driven tightly
into a row of drill holes, and which on being wetted swell and split
the coal; quicklime cartridges, which expand powerfully On the
application of water; simple wedges, driven by hammer into the
drill holes; multiple wedges, inserted in the holes and operated
by hydraulic pressure from a small hand force-pump.

Blasting with High Explosives. — High explosives are fired either
by ordinary fuze and detonating cap or by electric fuze. Detonating
caps of ordinary strength contain 10 to 15 grains of fulminating
mixture. The cap is crimped tight on the end of the fuze, embedded
in the cartridge, and on being exploded by fire from the fuze detonates
the charge. The number of cartridges charged depends on the depth
of hole, the length of the line of least resistance, and the toughness
and other characteristics of the rock. Each cartridge should be
solidly tamped, and, to avoid waste spaces in the hole, which would
reduce the effect of the blast, it is customary to split the paper
covering lengthwise with a knife. This allows the dynamite to
spread under the pressure of the tamping bar. The cap is often
placed in the cartridge preceding the last one charged, but it is
better to insert it last, in a piece of cartridge called a " primer."
Though the dynamites are not exploded by sparks, they should
nevertheless always be handled carefully. It is not so essential to
fill the hole completely and so thoroughly to compact the tamping,
as in charging black powder, because of the greater rapidity and
shattering force of the explosion of dynamite; tamping, however,
should never be omitted, as it increases the efficiency of the blast.
In exploding dynamite, strong caps, containing say 15 grains of
fulminating powder, produce the best results. Weaker caps are not
economical, as they do not produce complete detonation of the
dynamite. This is specially true if the weather be cold. Dynamite
then becomes less sensitive, and the cartridges should be gently
warmed before charging, to a temperature of not more than §0° F.
Poisonous fumes are often produced by the explosion of the nitro-
glycerin compounds. These are probably largely due to incomplete
detonation, by which part of the nitroglycerin is vaporized or
merely burned. This is most likely to occur when the dynamite is
chilled, or of poor quality, or when the cap is too weak, There is
generally but little inconvenience from the fumes, except in confined
underground workings, where ventilation is imperfect.

Like nitroglycerin, the common dynamites freeze at a temperature
of from 42 ° to 46 F. They are then comparatively safe, and so far
as possible should be transported in the frozen state. At very low
temperatures dynamite again becomes somewhat sensitive to shock.
When it is frozen at ordinary temperatures even the strongest
detonating caps fail to develop the full force. In thawing dynamite,
care must be exercised. The fact that a small quantity will often
burn quietly has led to the dangerously mistaken notion that mere
heating will not cause explosion. It is chiefly a question of tempera-
ture. If the quantity ignited by flame be large enough to heat the
entire mass to the detonating point (say 36cr F.) before all is con-
sumed, an explosion will result. Furthermore, dynamite, when
even moderately heated, becomes extremely sensitive to shocks.

There are several accepted modes of thawing dynamite: (1) In a
water bath, the cartridges being placed in a vessel surrounded on
the sides and bottom by warm water contained in a larger enclosing
vessel. The warm water may be renewed from time to time, or
the water bath placed over a candle or small lamp, not on a stove.
(2) In two vessels, similar to the above, with the space between them
occupied by air, provided the heat applied can be definitely limited,
as by using a candle. (3) When large quantities of dynamite are
used a supply may be kept on shelves in a wooden room or chamber,
warmed by a stove, or by a coil of pipe heated by exhaust steam
from an engine. Live steam should not be used, as the heat might
become excessive. Thawing should always take place slowly, never
before an open fire or by direct contact with a stove or steam pipes
and care must be taken that the heat does not rise high enough to
cause sweating or exudation of liquid nitroglycerin from the
cartridges, which would be a source of danger.

For the storage of explosives at mines, &c. , proper magazines must
be provided, situated in a safe place, not too near other buildings,
and preferably of light though fireproof construction. Masonry
magazines, though safer from some points of view, may be the cause
of greater damage in event of an explosion, because the brick or
stones act as projectiles. Isolated and abandoned mine workings,
if dry, are sometimes used as magazines.

Firing blasts by electricity has a wide application for both surface
and underground work. An electrical fuze (fig. 11) consists of a
pair of fine, insulated copper wires, several feet long and about 3*5
of an inch in diameter, with their bare ends inserted in a detonating
cap. For firing, the fuze wires are joined to long leading wires,
connected with some source of electric current. By joining the fuze
wires in series or in groups, any number of holes may be
fired simultaneously, according to the current avail-
able. A round of holes fired in this way, as for driving
tunnels, sinking shafts, or in large surface excavations,
produces better results, both in economy of explosive
and effect of the blast, than when the holes are fired
singly or in succession. Also, the miners are enabled to
prepare for the blast with more care and deliberation,
and then to reach a place of safety before the current
is transmitted. Another advantage is that there is no
danger of a hole " hanging fire," which sometimes
causes accidents in using ordinary fuzes.

Hanging fire may be due to a cut, broken or dam-
aged powder fuze, which may smoulder for some time
before communicating fire to the charge. " Miss-fires,"
which also are of not infrequent occurrence with both
ordinary and electric fuzes, are cases where explosion
from any cause fails to take place. After waiting a
sufficient length of time before approaching the charged
hole, the miner carefully removes the tamping down to
within a few inches of the explosives and inserts and
fires another cartridge, the concussion usually detonat-
ing the entire charge. Sometimes another hole is
drilled near the one which has missed. No attempt to
remove the old charge should ever be made. p IG IJ)

High tension electricity, generated by a frictiohal El ec tricaJ
machine, provided with a condenser, was formerly Fuze
much used for blasting. The bare ends of the fuze
wires in the detonating cap are placed say | in. apart, leaving
a gap across which a spark is discharged, passing through a
priming charge of some sensitive composition. The priming
is not only combustible but also a conductor of electricity,
such as an intimate mixture of potassium chlorate with copper
sulphide and phosphide. By the combustion of the priming the
fulminate mixture in the cap is detonated. As these fuzes are more
apt to deteriorate when exposed to dampness than fuzes for low-
tension current, and the generating machine is rather clumsy and
fragile, low-tension current is more generally employed. It may be
generated by a small, portable dynamo, operated by hand, or may be
derived from a battery or from any convenient electric circuit. The
ends of the fuze wires in the detonating cap are connected by a
fine platinum filament (fig. 11), embedded in a guncotton priming
on top of the fulminating mixture, and explosion results from the
heat generated by the resistance opposed to the passage of the
current through the filament. Blasting machines are made in
several sizes, the smaller ones being capable of firing simultaneously
from ten to twenty holes. The fuzes must obviously be of uniform
electrical resistance, to ensure that all the connected charges will
explode simultanefously. The premature explosion of any one of the
fuzes would break the circuit.

In the actual operations of blasting, definite rules for the pro-
portioning of the charges are rarely observed, and although the blasts
made by a skilful miner seldom fail to do their work, it is a common
fault that too much, rather than too little, explosive is used. The
high explosives are specially liable to be wasted, probably through
lack of appreciation of their power as compared with that of black
powder. Among the indications of excessive charges are the pro-
duction of much finely broken rock or of crushed and splintered rock
around the bottom of the hole, and excessive displacement or
projection of the rock broken by the blast. In beginning any new
piece of work, such waste may be avoided or reduced by making

4 8

BLAUBEUREN— BLAYDES

trial shots with different charges and depths of hole, and noting the
results; also by letting contracts under which the workmen pay for
the explosive. In surface rock excavation the location and deter-
mination of the depth of the holes and the quantity of explosive
used, are occasionally put in charge of one or more skilled men,
who direct the work and are responsible for the results obtained.

Blasting in surface excavations and quarries is sometimes done
on an immense scale — called " mammoth blasting." Shafts are
sunk, or tunnels driven, in the mass of rock to be blasted, and,
connected with them, a number of chambers are excavated to
receive the charges of explosive. The preparation for such blasts
may occupy months, and many tons of gunpowder or dynamite
are at times exploded simultaneously, breaking or dislodging thou-
sands, or even hundreds of thousands, of tons of rock. This method
is adopted for getting stone cheaply, as for building macadamized
roads, dams and breakwaters, obtaining limestone for blast furnace
flux, and occasionally in excavating large railway cuttings. It is
also applied in submarine blasting for the removal of reefs obstructing
navigation, and sometimes for loosening extensive banks of partly
cemented gold-bearing gravel, preparatory to washing by hydraulic
mining.

Authorities. — For further information on drilling and blasting
see: — Callon, Lectures on Mining (1876), vol. i. chs. v. and vi.;
Foster, Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining, (1900), ch. iv. ; Hughes,
Text-book of Coal Mining (1901), ch. iii. ; H. S. Drinker, Tunnelling,
Explosive Compounds and Rock Drills (1878) ; M. C. Ihlseng, Manual
of Mining (1905), pp. 596-696; Kohler, Der Bergbaukunde (1897),
pp. 104-208; Daw, The Blasting of Rock (1898); Prelini, Earth and
Rock Excavation (1905), chs. v., vi. and vii.; Gillette, The Excavation
of Rock (1904); Guttmann, Blasting (1892); Spon's Dictionary of
Engineering, art. "Boring and Blasting"; Eissler, Modern High
Explosives (1893), pts. ii. and iii.; Walke, Lectures on Explosives
(1897), chs. xix.-xxii. Also: Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. (London),
vol. Ixxxv. p. 264; Trans. Inst. Min. Eng. (England), vols, xiv., xv.
and xvi. (arts, by VV. Maurice), vol. xxvi. pp. 322, 348, vol. xxiv.
p. 526 and vol. xxv. p. 108; Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. xxvii.
P- 53°; Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xviii. p. 370, vol. xxix
p. 405 and vol. xxxiv. p. 871; South Wales Inst. Eng. (1888);
Jour. Ass. Eng. Socs., vol. vii. p. 58; Jour. Chem. Met. and Mining
Soc. of South Africa, August 1905 ; School of Mines Quarterly, N. Y.,
vol. ix. p. 308; Colliery Guardian, April 15, 1898, and February 6,
1903; Mines and Minerals, February 1905, p. 348, January 1906,
p. 259, and April 1906, p. 393; Eng. and Mining Jour., April 19,
1902, p. 552; The Engineer, February 24, 1905; Elec. Rev., June 9,
1899; Eng. News, vol. xxxii. p. 249, and August 3, 1905; Gluckauf,
September 28, 1901, and July 5, 1902; Osterr. Zeitschr. f. Berg- u.
Huttenwesen, May 18, 25, 1901, April 18, 1903 and November, 18,
1905; Annales des mines, vol. xviii. pp. 217-248. (R. P.*)

BLAUBEUREN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wiirttemberg, 12 m. W. of Ulm, with which it is connected by-
railway. Pop. (1900) 31 14. It is romantically situated in a wild
and deep valley of the Swabian Alps at an altitude of 1600 ft. and
is partly surrounded by ancient walls. Of the three churches
(two Evangelical and one Roman Catholic) the most remarkable
is the abbey church {Klosterkirche) , a late Gothic building dating
from 1465-1496, the choir of which contains beautiful 15th
century carved choir-stalls and a fine high altar with a triptych
(1496) . The choir only is used for service (Protestant) , the nave
being used as a gymnasium. The town church (Stadtkirche) also
has a fine altar with triptych. The Benedictine abbey, founded
in 1095, was used after the Reformation as a school, and is now
an Evangelical theological seminary. There are two hospitals
in the town.

BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA (1831-1891), Russian
theosophist, was born at Ekaterinoslav, on the 31st of July (O.S.)
183 i,the daughter of Colonel Peter Hahn, a member of a Mecklen-
burg family, settled in Russia. She married in her seventeenth
year a man very much her senior, Nicephore Blavatsky, a
Russian official in Caucasia, from whom she was separated after
a few months; in later days, when seeking to invest herself with
a halo of virginity, she described the marriage as a nominal one.
During the next twenty years Mme Blavatsky appears to have
travelled widely in Canada, Texas, Mexico and India, with two
attempts on Tibet. In one of these she seems to have crossed
the frontier alone in disguise, been lost in the desert, and, after
many adventures, been conducted back by a party of horsemen.
The years from 1848 to 1858 were alluded to subsequently as "the
veiled period " of her life, and she spoke vaguely of a seven years'
sojourn in " Little and Great Tibet," or preferably of a " Hima-
layan retreat." Ini8s8 she revisited Russia, where she created
a sensation as a spiritualistic medium. About 1870 she acquired

prominence among the spiritualists of the United States, where
she lived for six years, becoming a naturalized citizen. Her
leisure was occupied with the study of occult and kabbalistic
literature, to which she soon added that of the sacred writings of
India, through the medium of translations. In 1875 she conceived
the plan of combining the spiritualistic " control " with the
Buddhistic legends about Tibetan sages. Henceforth she
determined to exclude all control save that of two Tibetan adepts
or "mahatmas." The mahatmas exhibited their "astral
bodies " to her, " precipitated " messages which reached her
from the confines of Tibet in an instant of time, supplied her with
sound doctrine, and incited her to perform tricks for the con-
version of sceptics. At New York, on the 17th of November
1875, with the aid of Colonel Henry S. Olcolt, she founded the
" Theosophical Society "with the object of (1) forming a universal
brotherhood of man,(2) studying and making known the ancient
religions, philosophies and sciences, (3) investigating the laws of
nature and developing the divine powers latent in man. The
Brahmanic and Buddhistic literature supplied the society with
its terminology, and its doctrines were a curious amalgam of
Egyptian, kabbalistic, occultist, Indian and modern spiritual-
istic ideas and formulas. Mme Blavatsky's principal books were
Isis Unveiled (New York, 1877), The Secret Doctrine, the Synthesis
of Science, Religion and Philosophy (1888), The Key to Theosophy
(1891). The two first of these are a mosaic of unacknowledged
quotations from such books as K. R. H. Mackenzie's Royal
Masonic Encyclopaedia, C. W. King's Gnostics, Zeller's Plato, the
works on magic by Dunlop, E. Salverte, Joseph Ennemoser, and
Des Mousseaux, and the- mystical writings of Eliphas Levi (L. A.
Constant). A Glossary of Theosophical Terms (1890-1892) was
compiled for the benefit of her disciples. But the appearance of
Home's Lights and Shadoivs of Spiritualism (1877) had a pre-
judicial effect upon the propaganda, and Heliona P. Blavatsky
(as she began to style herself) retired to India. Thence she con-
tributed some clever papers, " From the Caves and Jungles of
Hindostan " (published separately in English, London, 1892) to
the Russky Vyestnik. Defeated in her object of obtaining em-
ployment in the Russian secret service, she resumed her efforts
to gain converts to theosophy. For this purpose the exhibition
of " physical phenomena " was found necessary. Her jugglery
was cleverly conceived, but on three occasions was exposed
in the most conclusive manner. Nevertheless, her cleverness,
volubility, energy and will-power enabled her to maintain her
ground, and when she died on the 8th of May 1891 (White
Lotus Day), at the theosophical headquarters in the Avenue
Road, London, she was the acknowledged head of a community
numbering not far short of 100,000, with journalistic organs in
London, Paris, New York and Madras.

Much information respecting her will be found in V. S. Solovyov's
Modern Priestess of Isis, translated by Walter Leaf (1895), in Arthur
Lillie's Madame Blavatsky and Her Theosophy (1895), and in the
report made to the Society for Psychical Research by the Cambridge
graduate despatched to investigate her dpings in India. See also
the article Theosophy.

BLAYDES, FREDERICK HENRY MARVELL (1818-1908),
English classical scholar, was born at Hampton Court Green, on
the 29th of September 1818, being a collateral descendant of
Andrew Marvell, the satirist and friend of Milton. He was
educated at St Peter's school, York, and Christ Church, Oxford.
He was Hertford scholar in 1838, took a second class in literae
humaniores in 1840, and was subsequently elected to a student-
ship at Christ Church. In 1842 he took orders, and from 1843
to 1886 was vicar of Harringworth in Northamptonshire. During
a long life he devoted himself almost entirely to the study of the
Greek dramatists. His editions and philological papers are
remarkable for bold conjectural emendations of corrupt (and
other) passages. His distinction was recognized by his being
made an honorary LL.D. of Dublin, Ph.D. of the university of
Buda Pest and a fellow of the royal society of letters at Athens.
He died at Southsea on the 7th of September 1908.

His works include: — Aristophanes: Comedies and Fragments,
with critical notes and commentary (1880-1893); Clouds, Knights,
Frogs, Wasps (1873-1878) ; Opera Omnia, with critical notes (1886);

BLAYDON— BLEACHING

Sophocles,; Oedipus Coloneus, Oedipus Tyrannus and Antigone (in
the Bibliotheca Classica, 1859) ; Philoctetes (1870), Trachiniae (1871),
Eleclra (1873), Ajax (1875), Antigone (1905) ; Aeschylus : Agamemnon
(1898), Choephori (1899), Eumenides (1900), Adversaria Critica tn
Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta (1890); in Tragicorum Craec.
Frag. (1894), in Aeschylum (1895), in Varios Poetas Graecos et
Latinos (1898), in Aristophanem (1899), in Sophoclem (1899), * M
Euripidem (1901), tw Herodotum (1901); Analecta Comica Graeca
(1905) ; Analecta Tragica Graeca (1906).

BLAYDON, an urban district in the Chester-le-Street parlia-
mentary division of Durham, England, on the Tyne, 4 m. W. of
Newcastle by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. -Pop. ( 1 88 1 )
10,687; (1901) 19,617. The chief industries are coal-mining,
iron-founding, pipe, fire-brick, chemical manure and bottle
manufactures. In the vicinity is the beautiful old mansion of
Stella, and below it Stellaheugh, to which the victorious Scottish
army crossed from Newburn on the Northumberland bank in
1640, after which they occupied Newcastle.

BLAYE-ET-STE LUCE, a town of south-western France,
capital of an arrondissement in the department of Gironde, on
the right bank of the Gironde (here over 2 m. wide), 35 m. N. of
Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906) of the town, 3423; of the com-
mune, 4890. The town has a citadel built by Vauban on a rock
beside the river, and embracing in its enceinte ruins of an old
Gothic chateau. The latter contains the tomb of Caribert, king
of Toulouse, and spn of Clotaire II. Blaye is also defended by
the Fort Pate on an island in the river and the Fort Medoc on its
left bank, both of the 17th century. The town is the seat of a
sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce
and a communal college. It has a small river-port, and carries
on trade in wine, brandy, grain, fruit and timber. The industries
include the building of small vessels, distilling, flour-milling, and
the manufacture of oil and candles. Fine red wine is produced
in the district.

In ancient times Blaye (Blavia) was a port of the Santones.
Tradition states that the hero Roland was buried in its basilica,
which was on the site of the citadel. It was early an important
stronghold which played an important part in the wars against
the English and the Religious Wars. The duchess of Berry was
imprisoned in its fortress in 1832-1833.

BLAZE (A.-S. Maese, a torch), a fire or bright flame; more
nearly akin to the Ger. Mass, pale or shining white, is the use
of the word for the white mark on the face of a horse or cow,
and the American use for a mark made on a tree by cutting off
a piece of the bark. The word " to blaze," in the sense of to
noise abroad, comes from the A.-S. blaesan, to blow, cf. the Ger.
blasen; in sense, if not in origin, it is confused with " blazon "
in heraldry.

BLAZON, a heraldic shield, a coat of arms properly " de-
scribed " according to the rules of heraldry, hence a proper
heraldic description of such a coat. The O. Fr. Mason seems
originally to have meant simply a shield as a means of defence
and not a shield-shaped surface for the display of armorial
bearings, but this is difficult to reconcile with the generally
accepted derivation from the Ger. Masen, to blow, proclaim,
English " blaze," to noise abroad, to declare. In the 16th
century the heraldic term, and " blaze " and " blazon " in the
sense of proclaim, had much influence on each other.

BLEACHING, the process of whitening or depriving objects
of colour, an operation incessantly in activity in nature by the
influence of light, air and moisture. The art of bleaching, of
which we have here to treat, consists in inducing the rapid
operation of whitening agencies, and as an industry it is mostly
directed to cotton, linen, silk, wool and other textile fibres, but
it is also applied to the whitening of paper-pulp, bees'-wax and
some oils and other substances. The term bleaching is derived
from the A.-S. blaecan, to bleach, or to fade, from which also
comes the cognate German word bleichen, to whiten or render
pale. Bleachers, down to the end of the 18th century, were
known in England as " whitsters," a name obviously derived
from the nature of their calling.

The operation of bleaching must from its very nature be of
the same antiquity as the work of washing textures of linen,

cotton or other vegetable fibres. Clothing repeatedly washed,
and exposed in the open air to dry, gradually assumes a whiter
and whiter hue, and our ancestors cannot have failed to notice
and take advantage of this fact. Scarcely anything is known
with certainty of the art of bleaching as practised by the nations
of antiquity. Egypt in early ages was the great centre of textile
manufactures, and her white and coloured linens were in high
repute among contemporary nations. As a uniformly well-
bleached basis is necessary for the production of a satisfactory
dye on cloth, it may be assumed that the Egyptians were fairly
proficient in bleaching, and that still more so were the Phoe-
nicians with their brilliant and famous purple dyes. We learn,
from Pliny, that different plants, and likewise the ashes of plants,
which no doubt contained alkali, were employed as detergents.
He . mentions particularly the Struthium as much used for
bleaching in Greece, a plant which has been identified by some
with Gypsophila Struthium. But as it does not appear from
John Sibthorp's Flora Graeca, edited by Sir James Smith, that
this species is a native of Greece, Dr Sibthorp's conjecture that
the Struthium of the ancients was the Saponaria officinalis, a
plant common in Greece, is certainly more probable.

In modern times, down to the middle of the 18th century,
the Dutch possessed almost a monopoly of the bleaching trade
although we find mention of bleach-works at Southwark near
London as early as the middle of the 17th century. It was
customary to send all the brown linen, then largely manufactured
in Scotland, to Holland to be bleached. It was sent away in the
month of March, and not returned till the end of October, being
thus out of the hands of the merchant more than half a year.

The Dutch mode of bleaching, which was mostly conducted
in the neighbourhood of Haarlem, was to steep the linen first
in a waste lye, and then for about a week in a potash lye poured
over it boiling hot. The cloth being taken out of this lye and
washed, was next put into wooden vessels containing butter-
milk, in which it lay under a pressure for five or six days. After
this\,it was spread upon the grass, and kept wet for several
months, exposed to the sunshine of summer.

In 1728 James Adair from Belfast proposed to the Scottish
Board of Manufactures to establish a bleachfield in Galloway;
this proposal the board approved of, and in the same year re-
solved to devote £2900 as premiums for the establishment of
bleachfields throughout the country. In 1732 a method of
bleaching with kelp, introduced-by R. Holden, also from Ireland,
was submitted to the board; and with their assistance Holden
established a bleachfield for prosecuting his process at Pitkerro,
near Dundee.

The bleaching process, as at that time performed, was very
tedious, occupying a complete summer. It consisted in steeping
the cloth in alkaline lyes for several days, washing it clean,
and spreading it upon the grass for some weeks. The steeping
in alkaline lyes, called bucking, and the bleaching on the grass,
called crofting, were repeated alternately for five or six times.
The cloth was then steeped for some days in sour milk, washed
clean and crofted. These processes were repeated, diminishing
every time the strength of the alkaline lye, till the linen had
acquired the requisite whiteness.

For the first improvement in this tedious process, which was
faithfully copied from the Dutch bleachfields, manufacturers
were indebted to Dr Francis Home of Edinburgh, to whom the
Board of Trustees paid £100 for his experiments in bleaching.
He proposed to substitute water acidulated with sulphuric acid
for the sour milk previously employed, a suggestion made in
consequence of the new mode of preparing sulphuric acid, con-
trived some time before by Dr John Roebuck, which reduced
the price of that acid to less than one-third of what it had
formerly been. When this change was first adopted by x the
bleachers, there was the same outcry against its corrosive effects
as arose when chlorine was substituted for crofting. A great
advantage was found to result from the use of sulphuric acid,
which was that a souring with sulphuric acid required at the
longest only twenty-four hours, and often not more than twelve;
whereas, when sour milk was employed, six weeks, or even two

BLEACHING

months, were requisite, according to the state of the weather.
In consequence of this. improvement, the process of bleaching
was shortened from eight months to four, which enabled the
merchant to dispose of his goods so much the sooner, and conse-
quently to trade with less capital.

No further modification of consequence was introduced in
the art till the year 1787, when a most important change was
initiated by the use of chlorine (q.v.), an element which had been
discovered by C. W. Scheele in Sweden about thirteen years
before. The discovery that this gas possesses the property of
destroying vegetable colours, led Berthollet to suspect that it
might be introduced with advantage into the art of bleaching, and
that it would enable practical bleachers greatly to shorten their
processes. In a paper on chlorine or oxygenated muriatic
acid, read before the Academy of Sciences at Paris in April
1785, and published in the Journal de Physique for May of the
same year (vol. xxvi. p. 325), he mentions that he had tried the
effect of the gas in bleaching cloth, and found that it answered
perfectly. This idea is still further developed in a paper on the
same substance, published in the Journal de Physique for 1786.
In 1786 he exhibited the experiment to James Watt; who,
immediately upon his return to England, commenced a practical
examination of the subject, and was accordingly the person
who first introduced the new method of bleaching into Great
Britain. We find from Watt's own testimony that chlorine was
practically employed in the bleachfield of his father-in-law,
Mr Macgregor, in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, in March 1787.
Shortly thereafter the method was introduced at Aberdeen by
Messrs Gordon, Barron & Co., on information received from
De Saussure through Professor Patrick Copland of Aberdeen.
Thomas Henry of Manchester was the first to bleach with chlorine
in the Lancashire district, and to his independent investigations
several of the early improvements in the application of the
material were due.

In these early experiments, the bleacher had to make his own
chlorine and the goods were bleached either by exposing them
in chambers to the action of the gas or by steeping them in its
aqueous solution. If we consider the inconveniences which must
have arisen in working with such a pungent substance as free
chlorine, with its detrimental effect on the health of the work-
people, it will be readily understood that the process did not at
first meet with any great amount of success. The first important
improvement was the introduction in 1792 of eau de Javel,
which was prepared at the Javel works near Paris by absorbing
chlorine in a solution of potash (1 part) in water (8 parts) until
effervescence began. The greatest impetus to the bleaching
industry was, however, given by the introduction in 1799 of
chloride of lime, or bleaching-powder, by Charles Tennant of
Glasgow, whereby the bleacher was supplied with a reagent in
solid form which contained up to one-third of its weight of avail-
able chlorine. Latterly frequent attempts have been made to
replace bleaching-powder by hypochlorite of soda, which is
prepared by the bleacher as re'quired, by the electrolytic decom-
position of a solution of common salt in specially constructed
cells, but up to the present this mode of procedure has met with
only a limited success (see Alkali Manufacture).

Bleaching of Cotton.

Cotton is bleached in the raw state, as yarn and in the piece.
In the raw state, and as yarn, the only impurities present are
those which are naturally contained in the fibres and which
include cotton wax, fatty acids, pectic substances, colouring
matters, albuminoids and mineral matter, amounting in all to
some s % of the weight of the material. Both in the raw state
and in the manufactured condition cotton also contains small
black particles which adhere firmly to the material and are
technically known as " motes." These consist of fragments of
the cotton seed husk, which cannot be completely removed by
mechanical means. The bleaching of cotton pieces is more
complicated, since the bleacher is called upon to remove the
sizing materials with which the manufacturer strengthens the
warp before weaving (see below).

In principle, the bleaching of cotton is a comparatively simple
process in which three main operations are involved, viz. (1)
boiling with an alkali; (2) bleaching the organic colouring matters
by means of a hypochlorite or some other oxidizing agent;
(3) souring, i.e. treating with weak hydrochloric or sulphuric
acid. For loose cotton and yarn these three operations are
sufficient, but for piece goods a larger number of operations is
usually necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory result.

Loose Cotton.— The bleaching of loose or raw cotton previous to
spinning is only carried out to a very limited extent, and consists'
essentially in* first steeping the' material in a warm solution of soda
for some hours, after which it is washed and treated with a solution
of bleaching powder or sodium hypochlorite. It is then . again
washed, soured with weak sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and
ultimately washed free from acid. Careful treatment is necessary
in order to avoid any undue matting of the fibres, while any drastic
treatment, such as heating with caustic soda and soap, as used for
other cotton materials, cannot be employed, since the natural wax.
would thereby be removed, and this would detract from the spinning
qualities of the fibre. In case the cotton is not intended to be spun,
but is to serve for cotton wool or for the manufacture of gun cotton,
more drastic treatment can be employed, and is, in fact, desirable.
Thus, cotton waste is first extracted with petroleum spirit or some
other suitable solvent, in order to remove any mineral oil or grease
which may be present. It is then boiled with dilute caustic soda
and resin soap, washed, bleached white with bleaching-powder,'
washed, soured and finally washed free from acid. In these opera-
tions, a certain amount of matting is unavoidable, and it is conse-
quently necessary to open out the material after drying, ih
scutchers.

Cotton Yarn.— Cotton yarn is bleached in the form of cops, hanks
or warps. In principle the processes employed are the same in each,
case, but the machinery necessarily differs. Most yarn is bleached
in the hank, and it will suffice to give an account of this process
only, The sequence of operations is the same as in the bleaching of
cotton waste, and these can be conducted for small lots in an ordinary
rectangular wooden vat as used in dyeing, in which the yarn is
suspended in the liquor from poles which rest with their ends on
the two longer sides of the vat. For bleaching yarn in bulk, however,
this mode of procedure would involve so much manual labour that
the process would become too expensive. It is, therefore, mainly"
with the object of economy that machinery has been introduced,
by means of which large quantities can be dealt with at a time.

The first operation, viz. that of boiling in alkali, is carried out in
a " kier," a large, egg-ended, upright cylindrical vessel, constructed
of boiler-plate and capable of treating, from one to three tons of yarn
at a time. In construction, the kiers used for yarn bleaching are
similar in construction to those used for pieces (see below). The
yarn to be bleached is evenly packed in the kier, and is then boiled
by means of steam with the alkaline lye (3-4 % of soda ash or 2 %
caustic soda on the weight of the cotton being usually employed)
for periods varying from six to twelve hours. It is essential that a
thorough circulation of the liquor should be maintained during the
boiling, and this is effected either by means of a steam injector, or
in other ways. As a rule low pressure kiers (working up to 10 lb
pressure) are employed for yarn bleaching, though some bleachers
prefer to use high pressure kiers for the purpose.

When the boiling has continued for the requisite time (6-8 hours),
the steam is shut off, and the kier liquor blown off, when the yarn is
washed in the kier by filling the latter with water and then running
off, this operation being repeated two or three times. The hanks are,
now transferred to a stone cistern provided with a false bottom,
from beneath which a pipe connects the cistern with a well situated
below the floor line. The well contains a solution of bleaching-
powder, usually of 2° Tw. strength, and this is drawn up by means
of a centrifugal brass pump and showered over the top of the goods
through a perforated wooden tray, passing then by gravitation
through the goods back into the well. The circulation is maintained
for one and a half to two hours, when the yarn will be found to be
white. The bleaching-powder solution is now allowed to drain off,
and water is circulated through the cistern to wash out what bleach-
ing powder remains in the goods. The souring is next carried out
either in the same or in a separate cistern by circulating hydrochloric
or sulphuric acid of 2° Tw. for about half an hour. This is also
allowed to drain, and the yarn is thoroughly washed to remove all
acid, when it is taken out and wrung or hydroextracted. At this
stage the yarn may be dyed in light or bright shades without further
treatment, but if it is to be sold as white yarn, it is blued. The
blueing may either be effected by dyeing or tinting with a colouring
matter like Victoria blue 4R or acid violet, or by treatment in wash
stocks with a suspension of ultramarine in weak soap until the colour
is uniformly distributed throughout the material. The yarn is now
straightened out and dried.

The bleaching of cotton yarn is a very straightforward process,
and it is very seldom that either complications or faults arise,
providing that reasonable care and supervision are exercised.

The raison d'etre of the various operations is comparatively simple.

BLEACHING

The effect of boiling with alkali is to remove the pectic acid, the fatty
acids, part of the cotton wax and the bulk of the colouring matter,
while the albuminoids are destroyed and the motes swelled up. If
soap be used along with the alkali, the whole of the wax is removed
by emulsification. In the operation of bleaching proper, the calcium
hypochlorite of the chloride of lime through coming into contact
with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere suffers decomposition
according to the equation, Ca(OCl) 2 +C0 2 +H 2 0->CaC0 3 +2HOCl,
and the hypochlorous acid thus liberated destroys the colouring
matter still remaining from the first operation, by oxidation. At
the same time the motes which were swelled up by the alkali are
broken up into small fragments and are thus removed. In the
operation of souring, the lime which has been deposited on the
fibres during the treatment with bleaching powder is dissolved,
while at the same time any other metallic oxides (iron, copper,
&c.) are removed.

Cotton Pieces. — By far the largest bulk of cotton is bleached in
the piece, as it can be more conveniently and more economically ,
dealt with in this form than in any other. Though similar in prin-
ciple to yarn bleaching, the process of piece bleaching is somewhat
more complex because the pieces contain in addition to the natural
impurities of the cotton a considerable amount of foreign matter
in the form of size which has been incorporated with the warp before
weaving, with the object of strengthening it. This size consists
essentially of starch (farina), with additions of tallow, zinc chloride,
and occasionally other substances such as paraffin wax, magnesium
chloride, soap, &c, all of which .must be removed if a perfect bleach
is to result. Besides, mineral oil stains from the machinery of the
weaving-shed are of common occurrence in piece goods.

Cotton pieces are bleached either for whites, for prints or for dyed
goods. The processes employed for these different classes vary but
slightly and only in detail. The most drastic bleach is that required
for goods which are subsequently to be printed. For dyed goods,
the main object is not so much to obtain a perfect white as to remove
any impurities which might interfere with the dyeing, while avoiding
the formation of any oxycellulose. In bleaching for whites (" market
bleaching ") it is essential that the white should be as perfect as
possible, and such goods are consequently invariably blued after
bleaching.

For small lots (1-20 pieces) the bleaching can be conducted on
very simple machinery. Thus many small piece dyers conduct the
whole of their bleaching on the jigger, a simple form of dyeing
machine on which most cotton piece goods are dyed (see Dyeing).
For muslins, laces and other very light fabrics, which will not stand
rough handling, the operations are conducted mainly by hand,
washing being effected in the dash-wheel (fig. 1), which consists of a

cylindrical box, revolv-
ing on its axis. It has
four divisions, as shown
by the dotted lines, and
an opening into each
division. A number of
pieces are put into
each, abundance of
water is admitted be-
hind, and the knocking
of the pieces as they
alternately dash from
one side of the division
to the other during the
revolution of the wheel
effects the washing.
The process lasts from
four to six minutes.
For velveteens, cor-
duroys, heavy drills, pocketings and other fabrics in which creasing
has to be avoided as much as possible, the so-called " open bleach "
is resorted to, which differs from the ordinary process chiefly in that
the goods are treated throughout at full width.

The great bulk of cotton pieces is bleached in rope form, i.e.
stitched together end to end and laterally collapsed, so that they
will pass through a ring of 4 to 5 in. in diameter.

The first operation which the goods undergo on arriving in the
grey-room of the bleachworks is that of stamping with tar or some
other indelible material in order that they may be identified after
passing through the whole process. They are then stitched together
end to end by means of special sewing machines, the stitch being of
such a nature (chain stitch) that the thread can be ripped out at one
pull at the end of the operations.

Singeing. — In the condition in which the pieces leave the loom
and come into the hands of the bleacher, the surface of the fabric
is seen to be covered with a nap of projecting fibres which gives it a
downy appearance. For some classes of goods this is not a dis-
advantage, but in the majority of cases, especially for prints where
a clean surface is essential, the nap is removed before bleaching.
This is usually effected by running the pieces at full width over a
couple of, arched copper plates heated to a full red heat by direct
fire. An arrangement of the kind is shown in fig. 2, in which the
singe-plates, o and b, are mounted over the flues of a coal fire. The
plate 6 is most highly heated, a being at the end of the flue farthest

Fig. 1. — Section of a Dash -wheel.

removed from the fire. The cloth enters over a rail A, and in passing
over the plate a is thoroughly dried and prepared for the singeing
it receives when it comes to the highly-heated plate b. A block d,
carrying two rails in the space between the plates, can be raised or
loweredso as to increase or lessen the pressure of the cloth against
the plates, or, if necessary, to lift it quite free of contact with them.
The pieces on leaving the singeing machine are passed either
through a water trough or through a steam box with the object of
extinguishing sparks, and are then plaited down. The speed at

Fig. 2. — Section of Singe-stove.

which the pieces travel over the singe plates is necessarily considerable
and varies with different classes of material. 1

In lieu of plates, a cast-iron cylinder is sometimes employed
( ' roller singeing "), the heating being effected by causing the flame
of the fire to be drawn through the roller, which is carried on two
small rollers, at each end and revolves slowly in the reverse direction
to that followed by the piece, thus exposing continuously a freshly
heated surface and avoiding uneven cooling.

For figured pieces which have an uneven surface, it is obvious
that plate or roller singeing would only affect the portions which
project most, leaving the rest untouched. For such goods, " gas
singeing " is employed, which consists in running the pieces over a
non-luminous gas flame, the breadth of which slightly exceeds that of
the piece, or in drawing the flame right through the piece. 2 The
construction of an ordinary gas singeing apparatus is seen in section
in rig- 3- Coal gas mixed with air is sent under pressure through
pipe a ino the burners b, b, where the mixture burns with an intense
heat. The cloth travels in the direction of the arrows, and in
passing over the
small nap rollers c
comes into contact
with the flame four
times in succession
before leaving the
machjne.

Gas singeing is
also used for plain
goods, and being
cleaner and under
better control has
largely replaced
plate singeing.

At this stage the
goods which have
been browned on
the surface by singeing are ready for the bleaching operations. A
great many innovations have been introduced in recent years in
the bleaching of calico, but although it is generally admitted that
in point of view of time and economy many of these processes
offer considerable advantages, the old process, in which a lime boil
precedes the other operations, is still the one which is most largely
employed by bleachers in England. In this, the sequence of
operations is the following — ■

_ Grey Washing. — This operation (which is sometimes omitted)
simply consists in running the pieces through an ordinary washing
machine (as shown in fig. 5) through water in order to wet them out.
On leaving the machine they are piled in a heap and left over night,
when fermentation sets in, which results in the starch being to a
large extent hydrolysed and rendered soluble in water.

Lime Boil. — In this operation, which is also known as bowking
(Ger. beuchen), the pieces are first run through milk of lime
contained in an ordinary washing machine and of such a strength

1 Besides being used for cotton goods, plate singeing is also em-
ployed for certain classes of worsted goods (alpacas, bunting, &c),
and for most union. goods (cotton warp and worsted weft).

2 A machine working on this principle has been constructed by
F. Binder, and the makers of the machine (Messrs Mather & Piatt,
Ltd.) claim that it does better service than the machines constructed
on the older principle.

Fig. 3. — Gas Singeing Apparatus.

BLEACHING

that they take up about 4% of their weight of lime (CaO). They
are then run over winches and guided through smooth porcelain
rings (" pot-eyes ") into the kier, where they are evenly packed by
boys who enter the vessel through the manhole at the top. It is
of the greatest importance that the goods should be evenly packed,
for, if channels or loosely-packed places are left, the liquor circulating
through the kier, when boiling is subsequently in progress, will
follow the line of least resistance, and the result is an uneven treat-
ment. Of the numerous forms of kier in use, the injector kier is
the one most generally adopted. This consists of an egg-ended
cylindrical vessel constructed of stout boiler plate and shown in
sectional elevation in fig. 4. The kier is from 10 to 12 ft. in height
and from 6 to 7 ft. in diameter, and stands on three iron legs riveted
to the sides, but not shown in the figure. The bottom exit pipe E
is covered with a shield-shaped false bottom of boiler plate, or (and
this is more usual) the whole bottom of the kier is covered with large
rounded stones from the river bed, the object in either case being
simply to provide space for the accumulation of liquor and to prevent
the pipe E being blocked. The cloth is evenly packed up to within
about 3 to 4 ft. of the manholes M, when lime water is run in through
the liquor pipe until the level of the liquid reaches within about 2 ft.
of the top of the goods. The manholes are now closed, and steam
is turned on at the injector J by opening the valve v. The effect
of this is to suck the liquor through E, and to force it up through
pipe P into the top of the kier, where it dashes against the umbrella-
shaped shield U and is distributed over the pieces, through which
it percolates, until on arriving at E it is again carried to the top of
the kier, a continuous circulation being thus effected. As the
circulation proceeds, the steam condensing in the liquor rapidly
heats the latter to the boil, and as soon as, in the opinion of the fore-
man, all air has been expelled, the blow-through tap is closed and
the boiling is continued for periods varying from six to twelve
hours under 20-60 lb pressure. Steam is now turned off, and by
opening the valve V the liquor, which is of a dark-brown colour, is
forced out by the pressure of the steam it contains.

The pieces are now run through a continuous washing machine,
which is provided with a plentiful supply of water. The machine,

___-__— Floor Level

Fig. 4. — High Pressure Blow-through Kier.

which is shown in fig. 5, consists essentially of a wooden vat, over
which there is a pair of heavy wooden (sycamore) bowls or squeezers.
The pieces enter the machine at each end, as indicated by the arrows,
and pass rapidly through the bowls down to the bottom of the vat
over a loose roller, thence between the first pair of guide pegs through
the bowls again, and travel thus in a spiral direction until they arrive
at the middle of the machine, when they leave at the side opposite
to that on which they entered. The same type of machine is used
for liming, chemicking, and souring.

The next operation is the " grey sour," in which the goods are
run through a washing machine containing hydrochloric acid of
2° Tw. strength, with the object of dissolving out the lime which
the goods retain in considerable quantity after the lime boil. The
goods are then well washed, and are now boiled again in the ash
bowking kier, which is similar in construction to the lime kier, with
soda ash (3%) and a solution of rosin (i|%) in caustic soda (ij%)

Fig. 5. — Roller Washing Machine.

for eight to ten hours. For white bleaching the rosin soap is omitted,
soda ash alone being employed.

The pieces are now washed free from alkali and the bleaching
proper or "chemicking" follows. This operation may be effected
in various ways, but the most efficient is to run the goods in a wash-
ing machine through bleaching powder solution at j°-i° Tw.,
and allow them to lie loosely piled over night, or in some cases for
a longer period. They are now washed, run through dilute sulphuric
or hydrochloric acid at 2° Tw. (" white sour ") and washed again.
Should the white not appear satisfactory at this stage (and this is
usually the case with very heavy or dense materials) , they are boiled
again in soda ash, chemicked with bleaching powder at |° Tw. or
even weaker, soured and washed. It is of the utmost importance
that the final washing should be as thorough as possible, in order
to completely remove the acid, for if only small quantities of the
latter are left in the goods, they are liable to become tender in the
subsequent drying, through formation of hydrocellulose.

The modern processes of bleaching cotton pieces differ from the
one described above, chiefly in that the lime boil is entirely dispensed
with, its place being taken by a treatment in the kier with caustic
soda (or a mixture of caustic soda and soda ash) and resin soap.
The best known and probably the most widely practised of these
processes is one which was worked out by the late M. Horace
Koechlin in conjunction with Sir William Mather, and this differs
from the old process not only in the sequence of the operations but
also in the construction of the kier. This consists of a horizontal
egg-ended cylinder, and is shown in transverse and longitudinal
sections in figs. 6 and 7. One of the ends E constitutes a door
which can be raised or lowered by means of the power-driven chain
C. , The goods to be bleached are packed in wagons W outside the
kier, and when filled these are pushed home into the kier, so that the
pipes p fit with their flanges on to the fixed pipes at the bottom of
the kier. The heating is effected by means of steam pipes at the
lowest extremity of the kier, while the circulation of the liquor is
brought about by means of the centrifugal pump P, which draws
the liquor through the pipes p from beneath the false bottoms of the
wagons and showers it over distributors D on to the goods. By
this mode of working a considerable economy is effected in point of
time, as the kier can be worked almost continuously; for as soon
as one lot of goods has been boiled, the wagons are run out and two
freshly-packed wagons take their place. The following is the
sequence of operations: — The goods are first steeped over night in

BLEACHING

dilute sulphuric acid, after which they are washed and run through
old kier liquor from a previous operation. They are then packed
evenly in the wagons which are pushed into the kier, and, the door
having been closed, they are boiled for about eight hours at 7-15 lb
pressure with a liquor containing soda ash, caustic soda, resin soap
and a small quantity of sulphite of soda. The rest of the operations
(chemicking, souring and washing) are the same as in the old process.
A somewhat different principle is involved in the Thies-Herzig
process. In this the kier is vertical, and the circulation of the liquor
is effected by means of a centrifugal or other form of pump, while the
heating of the liquor is brought about outside the kier in a separate

The machine consists essentially of a series of copper or tinned iron
cylinders, which are geared together so as to run at a uniform
speed. Steam at 10-15 lb pressure is admitted through the iournalled
bearings at one side of the machine, and the condensed water is
forced out continuously through the bearings at the other side.
The pieces pass in the direction of the arrow (fig. 9) over a scrimp
rail or expanding roller round the first cylinder, then in a zigzag
direction over all succeeding cylinders, and ultimately leave the
machine dry, being mechanically plaited down at the other end.

If the bleaching process has been properly conducted, the pieces
should not only show a uniform pure white colour, but their strength
should remain unimpaired. Careful experiments conducted by the
late Mr Charles O'Neill showed in fact that carefully bleached cotton
may actually be stronger than in the unbleached condition, and
this result has since been corroborated by others. Excessive blueing,
which is frequently resorted to in order to cover the defects of
imperfect bleaching, can readily be detected by washing a sample of
the material in water, or, better still, in water containing a little
ammonia, and then comparing with the original. The formation of
oxycellulose during the bleaching process may either take place in
bojling under pressure with lime or caustic soda in consequence of
the presence of air in the kier, or through excessive action of bleaching
powder, which may either result from the latter not being properly
dissolved or being used too strong. Its detection may be effected by

dyeing a sample of the bleached
cotton in a cold, very dilute
solution of methylene blue for
about ten minutes, when any
portions of the fabric in which
the cellulose has been con-
verted into oxycellulose will
assume a darker colour than
the rest. The depth of the
colour is at the same time an
indication of the extent to
which such conversion has taken
place. Most bleached cotton
contains some oxycellulose, but
as long as the formation has not
proceeded far enough to cause
tendering, its presence is of no
importance in white goods. If,
on the other hand, the cotton
has to be subsequently dyed
with direct cotton colours
(see Dyeing), the presence of
oxycellulose may result in un-
even dyeing. Tendering of the
pieces, due to insufficient wash-
ing after the final souring
operation, is a common defect in
bleached goods. As a rule the
free acid can be detected by
extracting the tendered material
with distilled water and adding
to the extract a drop of methyl
orange solution, when the latter
will turn pink if free acid be
present. Other defects which
may occur in bleached goods are
iron stains, mineral oil stains,
and defects due to the addition
of paraffin wax in the size.

Fig. 7. — The Mather Kier, longitudinal section.

vessel between the pump and the kier by means of indirect steam.
The sequence of operations is similar to that adopted in the Mather-
Koechlin process, differing chiefly from the latter in the first opera-
tion, which consists in running the goods, after singeing, through
very dilute boiling sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, containing in
either case a small proportion of hydrofluoric acid, and then running
them through a steam box, the whole operation lasting from twenty
to sixty seconds.

Bleached by any of the above processes, the cloth is next passed
over a mechanical contrivance known as a " scutcher," which opens
it out from the rope form to its full breadth, and is then dried on a
continuous drying machine. Fig. 8 shows the appearance and
construction of an improved form of the horizontal drying machine,
which is in more common use for piece goods than the vertical form.

Bleaching of Linen.
The bleaching of linen is
a much more complicated
and tedious process than the
bleaching of cotton. This is
due in part to the fact that in
linen the impurities amount to
20% or more of the weight of
the fibre, whereas in cotton
they do not usually exceed 5%. Furthermore these im-
purities, which include colouring matter, intracellular sub-
stances and a peculiar wax known as "flax wax," are more
difficult to attack than those which are present in cotton, and
the difficulty is still further enhanced in the case of piece
goods owing to their dense or impervious character.

Till towards the end of the 18th century the bleaching of linen
both in the north of Ireland and in Scotland was accomplished
by bowking in cows' dung and souring with sour milk, the pieces
being exposed to light on the grass between these operations for
prolonged periods. Subsequently potash and later on soda

BLEACHING

was substituted for the cows' dmig, while sour milk was replaced
by sulphuric acid. This " natural bleach " is still in use in
Holland, a higher price being paid for linen bleached in thisway
than for the same material bleached with the aid of bleaching
powder. In the year 1744 Dr James Ferguson of Belfast received
a premium of £300 from the Irish Linen Board for the application
of lime in the bleaching of linen. Notwithstanding this reward,

Fig. 8.— Mather & Piatt's Horizontal Drying Machine.

the use of lime in the bleaching of linen was for a long time-
afterwards forbidden in Ireland under statutory penalties, and so
late as 1815 Mr Barklie, a respectable'; linen bleacher of Linen
Vale, near Keady, was " prosecuted for using lime in the whiten-
ing of linens in his bleachyard."

The methods at present employed fof the bleaching of linen
are, except in one or two unimportant particulars, the same as
were used in the middle of the 19th century. In principle they
resemble those used in cotton bleaching; but require to be fre-
quently repeated, while an additional operation, 'which is a relic
of the old-fashioned process, viz. that of '■ "grassing" or "croft-
ing," is still essential for the production of the finest whites.
Considerably more care has to be exercised in linen bleaching
than is the case with cotton, and the process consequently
necessitates a greater amount of manual labour. The practical
result of this is that whereas cotton pieces can be bleached and
finished in less than a week, linen pieces require at least six weeks.
Many attempts have naturally been made to shorten and cheapen
the process, but without success. The use of stronger reagents
and more drastic treatment, which would at first suggest itself,
incurs the risk of injury to the fibre, not so much in respect to
actual tendering as to the destruction of its characteristic gloss,
while if too drastic a treatment is employed at the beginning
the colouring matter is liable to become set in the fibre, and it is
then almost impossible to remove it. Among the many modern
improvements which have been suggested, mention may be made
of the use of hypochlorite of soda in place of bleaching powder,
the use of oil in the first treatment in alkali (Cross & Parkes),
while de Keukelaere suggests the use of sodium sulphide for
this purpose. With the object of dispensing with the operation
of grassing, which besides necessitating much manual labour
is subject to the influences of the atmospheric conditions, Siemens
& Halske of Berlin have suggested exposure of the goods in a
chamber to the action of electrolytically prepared ozone. ^ Jardin
seeks to achieve the same object by steeping the linen in dilute
nitric acid.

Since the qualities of linen which are submitted to the bleacher
vary considerably, and the mode of treatment has to be varied
accordingly, it is not possible to give more than a bare outline
of linen bleaching.

Linen is bleached in the yarn and in the piece. Whenever one
of the operations is repeated, the strength of the reagent is
successively diminished. In yarn-bleaching the sequence of the
operations is about as follows:— (1)
Boil in kier with soda ash. (2) Reel
in bleaching powder. This operation,
which is peculiar to linen bleaching,
consists in suspending the hanks from
a square roller into bleaching powder
solution contained in a shallow stone
trough. The roller revolves slowly, so
that the hanks, while passing continu-
ously through the bleaching powder,
are for the greater part of the time
being exposed to the air. , (3) Sour in
sulphuric acid. (4) Scald in soda ash.
(The term " scalding " means boiling
in a kier.) (5) Reel in bleaching pow-
der. (6) Sour in sulphuric acid. (7)
Scald in soda ash. (8) Dip, i.e. steep
in bleaching powder. (9) Sour in
sulphuric acid. (10) Scald in soda ash.
(n) Dip in bleaching powder. (12)
Sour in sulphuric acid. For a full
white, two more operations are usually
required, viz. (13) scald in soda ash,
and (14) dip in bleaching powder.
Washing intervenes between all these
operations.

Pieces are not stamped as in the
case oi, cotton, but thread-marked by
hand with cotton dyed Turkey red.
They are then sewn together end to
end, and subjected to the following
operations :—

Boil with lime in kier.
The pieces are now separated and
made up into bundles (except in the
case of very light linens, which may
pass through the whole of the operations in rope form) and soured
with sulphuric acid.

First lye boil with soda ash and caustic soda. -
Second lye boil. For some classes of goods no less than six lye
boils may be required.

Grass between lye boils (according to their number).
! Rub with rubbing boards. This is also a speciality in linen
bleaching, and consists of a mechanical treatment with soft soap,
the object of which is to remove black stains in the yarn. »
Bleach with hypochlorite of soda.

Scald. The two latter treatments are repeated three to five times,
each series constituting a " turn." Grassing intervenes between
each turn, and in some instances the pieces are rubbed before the
last soda boil.

The pieces are next steeped in large vessels (kiers) in weak hypo-

FlG. 9.— Diagram showing the Horizontal Drying Machine
threaded with Cloth.

chlorite of soda, and then in weak sulphuric acid, these treatments
being repeated several times.
Ultimately the goods are mill- washed, blued with smalt and dried.

Bleaching of other Vegetable Textile Fabrics.
Hemp may be bleached by a process similar to that used for
linen, but this is seldom done owing to the expense entailed.
China grass is bleached like cotton. Jute contains in its raw
state a considerable amount of colouring matter and intracellular
substance. Since the individual fibres are very shortj the

BLEAK

complete removal of .the latter would be attended by a disin-
tegration of the material. Although it is possible to bleach jute
white; this'is seldom if ever carried out on a la,rge scale owing'
to the great expense involved. ' A half -bleach on jute is obtained
by steeping the goods alternately in bleaching powder (or hypo-
chlorite of soda) and sulphuric acid, washing intervening. For
a cream these treatments are repeated.

Bleaching of Straw.
■■■ In the Luton district, straw is bleached principally in the form
of plait, in which form it is imported. The bleaching is effected
by steeping the straw for periods varying from twelve hours to
several days in fairly strong alkaline peroxide of hydrogen.
The number of baths depends upon the quality of straw and the
degree of whiteness required. Good whites are thus obtained,
aijd no further process would be necessary if the hats had not
subsequently to be "blocked" or pressed at a high temperature
which brings about a deterioration of the colour. After
bleaching with peroxide and drying, the straw consequently
undergoes a further process of sulphuring, i.e. exposure to gaseous
sulphurous acid. Panama hats are bleached after making up,
but in this case only peroxide of hydrogen is used and a very
lengthy treatment entailing sometimes fourteen days' steeping
is required.

Bleaching of Wool.
■ In the Condition in which it is delivered to the manufacturers
wool is generally a very impure article, even if it has been washed
on the sheep's back before shearing. The impurities which it
contains consist in the main of the natural grease (in reality
a kind of wax) exuded from the skin of the sheep and technically
known as the " yolk," the dried-up perspiration from the body
of the sheep, technically called " suint," and dust, dirt, burrs,
ire, which mechanically adhere to the sticky surfaces of the
fibres. In this condition wool is quite unfit for any manufacturing
purposes and must be cleansed before any mechanical operations
can be commenced. Formerly the washing was effected in stale
urine, which owed its detergent properties mainly to the presence
of ammonium carbonate. The stale urine or lant was diluted
with four to five times its bulk of water, and in this liquor, heated
to 4b°-so° C, the Washing was effected.

At the present day this method has been entirely abandoned,
the washing or " scouring " being effected with soap, assisted
by ammonia, potash, soda or silicate of soda. The finest quali-
ties of wool are washed with soft soap and potash, while for
inferior qualities, cheaper detergents are employed. The
operation is in principle perfectly simple, the wool being sub-
merged in the warm soap solution, where it is moved about with
forks arid then taken out and allowed to drain. A second
treatment in weaker soap serves to complete the process. In
dealing with large quantities, wocl-washing machines are em-
ployed, which consist essentially of long cast-iron troughs which
contain the soap solution. The wool to be washed is fed in at
one end of the machine and is slowly propelled to the other end
by means b'f a system of mechanically-driven forks or rakes. As
it passes from the machine, it is squeezed through a pair of rollers.
Three such machines are usually required for efficient washing,
the first containing the strongest and the third the weakest soap.

The washing of wool is in the main a mechanical process, in
which the water dissolves out the suint while the soap emulsifies
the yolk and thus removes it from the fibre. The attendant
earthy impurities pass mechanically into the surrounding liquid
and are swilled away.

In some works the wool is washed first with water alone, the
aqueous extract thus obtained being evaporated to dryness and
the residue calcined. A very good quality of potash is thus
obtained as a by-product. In many works in Yorkshire and
elsewhere, the dirty soap liquors obtained in wool-washing are
riot allowed to run to waste, but are run into tanks and there
treated with sulphuric acid. The effect of this treatment
is to decompose the soap, and the fatty acids along with the
wool-grease rise as a rnagma to the surface. The purified product
is known m fllfc' trade as "Yorkshire grease."

Attempts have been made from time to time to extract the
natural grease from wool by means of organic solvents, such as
carbon bisulphide, carbon tetrachloride, petroleum spirit, &c,
but have not met with much success.

Worsted yarn spun on the English system, as well as woollen
yarn and fabrics made from them, contain oil which has been
incorporated with the wool to facilitate the spinning. This oil
must be got rid of previous to bleaching, and this is effected by
scouring in warm soap with or without the assistance of alkalis.

The actual bleaching of wool may be effected in two ways, viz.
by treating the material either with sulphurous acid or with hydrogen
peroxide. Sulphurous acid may either be applied in the gaseous
form or in solution as bisulphite of soda. In working by the first
method, which is technically known as " stoving," the scoured yarn
is wetted in very weak soap containing a small amount of blue
colouring matter, wrung or hydro-extracted and then suspended in
a chamber or stove. Sulphur contained in a vessel on the floor of
the 'chamber is now lighted, and the door having been closed, is
allowed to burn itself out. The goods are left thus exposed to the
sulphur dioxide overnight, when they are taken out and washed
in water. For piece goods a somewhat different arrangement is
employed, the pieces passing through a slit into a chamber supplied
with sulphur dioxide, then slowly up and down over a large number
of rollers and ultimately emerging again at the same slit. Wool
may also be bleached by steeping in a fairly strong solution of
bisulphite of soda and then washing well in water. Wool bleached
with sulphurous acid or bisulphite is readily affected by alkalis,
the natural yellow colour returning on washing with soap or soda.
A more permanent bleach is obtained by steeping the wool in
hydrogen peroxide (of 12 volumes strength), let down with about
three times its bulk of water and rendered slightly alkaline with
ammonia or silicate of soda. Black or brown wools cannot be
bleached white, but when treated with peroxide they assume a
golden colour, a change which is frequently desired in human hair.

Bleaching of Silk.

In raw silk, the fibre proper is uniformly coated with a proteid
substance known as silk-gum, silk-glue or sericine which amounts
to 19-25 % of the weight of the material, and it is only after' the
removal of this coating that the characteristic properties of the
fibre become apparent. This is effected by the process of " dis-
charging " or " boiling-off," which consists in suspending the
hanks of raw silk over poles or sticks in a vat containing a strong
hot soap solution (30 % of soap on the weight of the silk). The
liquor is kept just below boiling point for two or three hours, the
hanks being turned from time to time. During the process, the
sericine at first swells up considerably, the fibres becoming
slippery, but as the operation proceeds it passes into solution.
It is important that only soft water should be used for boiling-off
since calcareous impurities are liable to mar the lustre of the silk.

The silk is now rinsed in weak soda solution and wrung. In this
condition it is suitable for being dyed, but if it is to be bleached,
the hanks are tied up loosely with smooth tape, put into coarse
linen bags to prevent the silk becoming entangled, and boiled
again in soap solution which is half as strong as that used in the
first operation. The hanks are now taken out, rinsed in a weak
soda solution, washed in water and wrung.

The actual bleaching of silk is usually effected by stoving as in
the case of wool, with this difference, that the operation is repeated
several times and blueing or tinting with other colours is effected
after bleaching. Silk may also be bleached with peroxide of
hydrogen, but this method is only used for certain qualities of
spun silk and for tussore.

Ornamental feathers are best bleached by steeping in peroxide of
hydrogen, rendered slightly alkaline by the addition of ammonia.
The same treatment is applied to the bleaching of ivory. If peroxide
of hydrogen could be prepared at a moderate cost, it would doubtless
find a much more extensive application in bleaching, since it combines
efficiency with safety, and gives good results with both vegetable and
animal substances. (E. K.)

BLEAK, or Blick (Alburnus lucidus), a small fish of the
Cyprinid family, allied to the bream and the minnow, but with
a more elongate body, resembling a sardine. It is found in
European streams, and is caught by anglers, being also a favourite
in aquariums. The well-known and important industry of
" Essence Orientale " and artificial pearls, carried on in France
and Germany with the crystalline silvery colouring matter of

BLEEK— BLENDE

the bleak, was introduced from China about the middle of the
17 th century.

BLEEK, FRIEDRICH (1793-1859), German Biblical scholar,
was born on the 4th of July 1793, at Ahrensbok, in Holstein, a
village near Liibeck. His father sent him in his sixteenth year
to the gymnasium at Liibeck, where he became so much inter-
ested in ancient languages that he abandoned his idea of a legal
career and resolved to devote himself to the study of theology.
After spending some time at the university of Kiel, he went to
Berlin, where, from 1814 to 1817, he studied under De Wette,
Neander and Schleiermacher. So highly were his merits
appreciated by his professors — Schleiermacher was accustomed
to say that he possessed a special charisma for the science of
" Introduction " — that in 1818 after he had passed the examina-
tions for entering the ministry he was recalled to Berlin as
Repetent or tutorial fellow in theology, a temporary post which
the theological faculty had obtained for him. Besides dis-
charging his duties in the theological seminary, he published
two dissertations in Schleiermacher's and G. C. F. Lucke's
Journal{\ 819-1820,1822), one on the origin and composition of the
Sibylline Oracles " Uber die Entstehung und Zusammensetzung
der Sibyllinischen Orakel," and another on the authorship and
design of the Book of Daniel, " Uber Verfasser und Zweck des
Buches Daniel." These articles attracted much attention, and
were distinguished by those qualities of solid learning, thorough
investigation and candour of judgment which characterized
all his writings. Bleek's merits as a rising scholar were recog-
nized by the minister of public instruction, who continued his
stipend as Repetent for a third year, and promised further
advancement in due time. But the attitude of the political
authority underwent a change. De Wette was dismissed from
his professorship in 18 19, and Bleek, a favourite pupil, incurred
the suspicion of the government as an extreme democrat.
Not only was his stipend as Repetent discontinued, but his
nomination to the office of professor extraordinarius, which
had already been signed by the minister Karl Altenstein, was
withheld. At length it was found that Bleek had been con-
founded with a certain Baueleven Blech, and in 1823 he received
the appointment.

During the six years that Bleek remained at Berlin, he twice
declined a call to the office of professor ordinarius of theology,
once to Greifswald and once to Konigsberg. In 1829, however,
he was induced to accept Lucke's chair in the recently-founded
university of Bonn, and entered upon his duties there in the
summer of the same year. For thirty years he laboured with
ever-increasing success, due not to any attractions of manner or
to the enunciation of novel or bizarre opinions, but to the sound-
ness of his investigations, the impartiality of his judgments, and
the clearness of his method. In 1843 he was raised to the office
of consistorial councillor, and was selected by the university
to hold the office of rector, a distinction which has not since
been conferred upon any theologian of the Reformed Church.
He died suddenly of apoplexy on the 27th of February 1859.

Bleek's works belong entirely to the departments of Biblical
criticism and exegesis. His views on questions of Old Testament
criticism were " advanced " in his own day; for on all the
disputed points concerning the unity and authorship of the
books of the Old Covenant he was opposed to received opinion.
But with respect to the New Testament his position was con-
servative. An opponent of the Tubingen school, his defence of
the genuineness and authenticity of the gospel of St John is
among the ablest that have been written; and although on
some minor points his views did not altogether coincide with
those of the traditional school, his critical labours on the New
Testament must nevertheless be regarded as among the most
important contributions to the maintenance of orthodox
opinions. His greatest work, his commentary on the epistle to
the Hebrews {Brief an die Hebraer erldutert durch Einleitung,
Ubersetzung, und fortlaufenden Commentar, in three parts, 1828,
1836 and 1840) won the highest praise from men like De Wette
and Fr. Delitzsch. This work was abridged by Bleek for his
college lectures, and was published in that condensed form in

1868. In 1846 he published his contributions to the criticism,
of the gospels (Beitrage zur Evangelien Kritik, pt. i.), which
contained his defence of St John's gospel, and arose out of a
review of J. H. A. Ebrard's Wissenschaftliche Kritik der Evangeli-
schen Geschichte (1842).

After his death were published: — (1) His Introduction to the Old
Testament (Einleitung in das Alte Testament), (3rd ed., 1869); Eng.
trans, by G. H. Venables (from 2nd ed., 1869); in 1878 a new
edition (the 4th) appeared under the editorship of J. Wellhausen,
who made extensive alterations and additions; (2) his Introduction
to the New Testament (3rd ed., W. Mangold, 1875), Eng. trans, (from
2nd German ed.) by William Urwick (1869, 1870) ; (3) his Exposition
of the First Three Gospels (Synoptische Erklarung der drei ersten
Evangelien), by H. Holtzmann (1862); (4) his Lectures on the
Apocalypse (Vorlesungen uber die Apokalyps'e) , (Eng. trans. 1875).
Besides these there has also appeared a small volume containing
Lectures on Colossians, Philemon and Ephesians (Berlin, 1865).
Bleek also contributed many articles to the Studien und Kritiken.
For further information as to Bleek's life and writings, see Kamp-
hausen's article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie; Frederic
Lichtenberger's Histoire des idees religieuses en Allemagne, vol. iil. ;
Diestel's Geschichte des Alten Testamentes (1869) ; and T. K. Cheyne's
Founders of Old Testament Criticism (1893).

BLEEK, WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL (1827-1875),
German philologist, son of Friedrich Bleek, was born in 1827
at Berlin. He studied first at Bonn and afterwards at Berlin,
where his attention was directed towards the philological
peculiarities of the South African languages. In his doctor's
dissertation (Bonn, 1851), De nominum generibus linguarum
Africae Australis, he endeavoured to show that the Hottentot
language was of North African descent. In 1854 his health
prevented him accompanying Dr W. B. Baikie in the expedition
to the Niger; but in the following year he accompanied Bishop
Colenso to Natal, and was enabled to prosecute his researches
into the language and customs of the Kaffirs. Towards the close
of 1856 he settled at Cape Town, and in 1857 was appointed
interpreter by Sir George Grey. In 1859 he was compelled by
ill-health to visit Europe, and on his return in the following year
he was made librarian of the valuable collection of books pre-
sented to the colony by Sir George Grey. In 1869 he visited
England, where the value of his services was recognized by a
pension from the civil list. He died at Cape Town on the 17 th
of August 1875. His works, which are of considerable importance,
for African and Australian philology, consist of the Vocabulary
of the Mozambique Language (London, 1856); Handbook of
African, Australian and Polynesian Philology (Cape Town and;
London, 3 vols., 1858-1863); Comparative Grammar of the
South African Languages (vol. i., London, 1869); Reynard the
Fox in South Africa, or Hottentot Fables and Tales (London, 1864) ;
Origin of Language (London, 1869).

BLENDE, or Sphalerite, a naturally occurring zinc sulphide,
ZnS, and an important ore of zinc. The name blende was used
by G. Agricola in 1546, and is from the German blenden, to
blind, or deceive, because the mineral resembles lead-ore in r
appearance but contains no lead, and was consequently often
rejected as worthless. Sphalerite, introduced by E. F. Glocker
in 1847, has the same meaning (Gr. o-<ba\epos, deceptive), and
so have the miners' terms "mock ore," " false lead," and
" blackjack." The term " blende " was
at one time used in a generic sense, and
as such enters into the construction of
several old names of German origin;
the species under consideration is there-
fore sometimes distinguished as zinc-
blende.

Crystals of blende belong to that sub-
class of the cubic system in which there
are six planes of symmetry parallel to
the faces of the rhombic dodecahedron
and none parallel to the cubic faces; in other words, the,
crystals are cubic with inclined hemihedrism, and have no
centre of symmetry. The fundamental form is the tetrahedron.
Fig. 1 shows a combination of two tetrahedra, in which the
four faces of one tetrahedron are larger than the four faces of
the other: further, the two sets of faces difer in surface

BLENHEIM

characters, those of one set being dull and striated, whilst
those of the other set are bright and smooth. A common
' form, shown in fig. 2, is a combination of the rhombic
dodecahedron with a three-faced tetrahedron y (311);
the six faces meeting in each triad axis are often rounded
together into low conical forms. The crystals are frequently
twinned, the twin-axis coinciding with a triad axis; a rhombic
dodecahedron so twinned (fig. 3) has no re-entrant angles. An
important character of blende is the perfect dodecahedral
cleavage, there being six directions of cleavage parallel to the
faces of the rhombic dodecahedron, and angles between which
are 6o°.

When chemically pure, which is rarely the case, blende is
colourless and transparent; usually, however, the mineral is
yellow, brown or black, and often opaque, the depth of colour
and degree of transparency depending on the amount of iron
present. The streak, or colour of the powder, is brownish or
light yellow, rarely white. The lustre is resinous to adamantine,
and the index of refraction high (2-369 for sodium light). The
substance is usually optically isotropic, though sometimes it
exhibits anomalous double refraction; fibrous zinc sulphide
which is doubly refracting is to be referred to the hexagonal

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

species wurtzite. The specific gravity is 4-0, and the hardness
4. Crystals exhibit pyroelectrical characters, since they possess
four uniterminal triad axes of symmetry.

Crystals of blende are of very common occurrence, but owing
to twinning and distortion and curvature of the faces, they are
often rather complex and difficult to decipher. For this reason
the mineral is not always readily recognized by inspection,
though the perfect dodecahedral cleavage, the adamantine
lustre, and the brown streak are characters which may be relied
upon. The mineral is also frequently found massive, with a
coarse or fine granular structure and a crystalline fracture;
sometimes it occurs as a soft, white, amorphous deposit resem-
bling artificially precipitated zinc sulphide. A compact
variety of a pale liver-brown colour and forming concentric
layers with a reniform surface is known in Germany as Schalen-
blende or Leberblende.

A few varieties of blende are distinguished by special names,
these varieties depending on differences in colour and chemical
composition.' A pure white blende from Franklin in New Jersey
is known as cleiophane; snow-white crystals are also found at
Nordmark in Vermland, Sweden. Black blende containing
ferrous sulphide, in amounts up to 15 or 20 % isomorphously
replacing zinc sulphide, is known as marmatite (from Marmato
near Guayabal in Colombia, South America) and christophite
(from St Christophe mine at Breitenbrunn near Eibenstock in
Saxony). Transparent blende of a red or reddish-brown colour,
such as that found near Holywell in Flintshire, is known as
" ruby-blende " or " ruby-zinc." Pftbramite is the name
given to a cadmiferous blende from Pribram in Bohemia.
Other varieties contain small amounts of mercury, tin, man-
ganese or thallium. The elements gallium and indium were
discovered in blende.

Blende occurs in metalliferous veins, often in association with
galena, also with chalcopyrite, barytes, fluorspar, &c. In ore-
deposits containing both lead and zinc, such as those filling
cavities in the limestones of the north of England and of Missouri,
the galena is usually found in the upper part of the deposit, the
blende not being reached until the deeper parts are worked.

Blende is also found sporadically in sedimentary rocks; for
example, in nodules of clay-ironstone in the Coal Measures, in the
cement-doggers of the Lias, and in the casts of fossil shells. It
has occasionally been found on the old timbers of mines. In
these cases the zinc sulphide has probably arisen from the
reduction of sulphate by organic matter.

Localities for fine crystallized specimens are numerous.
Mention may be made of the brilliant black crystals from Alston
Moor in Cumberland, St Agnes in Cornwall and Derbyshire.
Yellow crystals are found at Kapnik-Banya, near Nagy-Banya
in Hungary. Transparent yellow cleavage masses of large
size occur in limestone in the zinc mines at Picos de
Europa in the province of Santander, Spain. Beautiful
isolated tetrahedra of transparent yellow blende are found
in the snow-white crystalline dolomite of the Binnenthal in
the Valais, Switzerland. (L. J. S.)

BLENHEIM (Ger. Blindheim), a village of Bavaria, Germany,
in the district of Swabia, on the left bank of the Danube, 30 m.
N.E. from Ulm by rail, a few miles below Hochstadt. Pop. 700.
It was the scene of the defeat of the French and Bavarians under
Marshals Tallard and Marsin, on the 13th of August 1704, by the
English and the Austrians under the duke of Marlborough and
Prince Eugene. In consideration of his military services and
especially his decisive victory, a princely mansion was erected by
parliament for the duke of Marlborough near Woodstock in
Oxfordshire, England, and was named Blenheim Palace after
this place.

The battle of Blenheim is also called Hochstadt, but the title
accepted in England has the advantage that it distinguishes this
battle from that won on the same ground a year previously, by
the elector of Bavaria over the imperial general Styrum (9-20
September 1703), and from the fighting between the Austrians
under Krag and the French under Moreau in June 1800 (see
French Revolutionary Wars). The ground between the
hills and the marshy valley of the Danube forms a defile through
which the main road from Donauworth led to Ulm; parallel
streams divide the narrow plain into strips. On one of these
streams, the Nebel, the French and Bavarians (somewhat
superior in numbers) took up their position facing eastward,
their right flank resting on the Danube, their left in the under-
features of the hilly ground, and their front covered by the Nebel,
on which were the villages of Oberglau, Unterglau and Blenheim.
The imperialist army of Eugene and the allies under Marlborough
(52,000 strong) encamped 5 m. to the eastward along another
stream, their flanks similarly protected. On the 2nd-i3th of
August 1704 Eugene and Marlborough set their forces in motion
towards the hostile camps; several streams had to be crossed on
the march, and it was seven o'clock (five hours after moving off)
when the British of Marlborough's left wing, next the Danube,
deployed opposite Blenheim, which Tallard thereupon garrisoned
with a large force of his best infantry, aided by a battery of
24-pounder guns. The French and Bavarians were taken
somewhat by surprise, and were arrayed in two separate armies,
each with its cavalry on the wings and its foot in the centre.
Thus the centre of the combined forces consisted of the cavalry
of Marsin's right and of Tallard's left.

Here was the only good ground for mounted troops, and
Marlborough followed Tallard's example when forming up to
attack, but it resulted from the dispositions of the French
marshal that this weak point of junction of his two armies was
exactly that at which decisive action was to be expected.
Tallard therefore had a few horse on his right between the
Danube and Blenheim, a mass of infantry in his centre atBlenheim
itself, and a long line of cavalry supported by a few battalions
forming his left wing in the plain, and connecting with the right
of Marsin's army. This army was similarly drawn up. The
cavalry right wing was in the open, the French infantry near
Oberglau, which was strongly held, the Bavarian infantry next
on the left, and finally the Bavarian cavalry with a force of foot
on the extreme left in the hills. The elector of Bavaria com-
manded his own troops in person. Marlborough and Eugene on
their part were to attack respectively Tallard and Marsin. The

BLENNERHASSETT— BLIDA

right wing under Eugene had to make a difficult march over
broken ground before it could form up for battle, and Marl-
borough waited, with his army in order of battle between
Unterglau and Blenheim, until his colleague should be ready.
At 12.30 the battle opened. Lord Cutts, with a detachment of
Marlborough's left wing, attacked Blenheim with the utmost
fury. A third of the leading brigade (British) was killed ^nd
wounded in the vain attempt to break through the strong defences
of the village, and some French squadrons charged upon it as it
retired; a colour was captured in the melee, but a Hessian
brigade in second line drove back the cavalry and retook the
colour. After the repulse of these squadrons, in which some
British cavalry from the centre took part, Cutts again moved
forward. The second attack, though pressed even more fiercely,
fared no better than the first, and the losses were heavier than
before. The duke then ordered Cutts to observe the enemy in
Blenheim, and concentrated all his attention on the centre.
Here, between Unterglau and Blenheim, preparations were being
made, under cover of artillery, for the crossing of the Nebel, and
farther up-stream a corps was sent to attack Oberglau. This
attack failed completely, and it was not until Marlborough
himself, with fresh battalions, drove the French back into
Oberglau that the allies were free to cross the Nebel.
' In the meanwhile the first line of Marlborough's infantry had
crossed lower down, and the first line of cavalry, following them
across, had been somewhat severely handled by Tallard's cavalry.
The squadrons under the Prussian general Bothmar, however,
made a dashing charge, and achieved considerable temporary
success. Eugene was now closely engaged with the elector of
Bavaria, and both sides were losing heavily. But Eugene carried
out his holding attack successfully. Marsin dared not reinforce
Tallard to any extent, and the duke was preparing for the grand
attack. His whole force, except the detachment of Cutts, was
now across the Nebel, and he had formed it in several lines with
the cavalry in front. Marlborough himself led the cavalry;
the French squadrons received the attack at the halt, and were
soon broken. Marsin's right swung back towards its own army.:
Those squadrons of Tallard's left which retained their order fell
back towards the Danube, and a great gap was opened in the
centre of the defence, through which the victorious squadrons
poured. Wheeling to their left the pursuers drove hundreds of
fugitives into the Danube, and Eugene was now pressing the
army of Marsin towards Marlborough, who re-formed and faced
northward to cut off its retreat. Tallard was already a prisoner,
but in the dusk and confusion Marsin slipped through between
the duke and Eugene. General Churchill, Marlborough's brother,
had meanwhile surrounded the French garrison of Blenheim;
and after one or two attempts to break out, twenty-four ba ttalions
of infantry and four regiments of dragoons, many of them the
finest of the French army, surrendered.

The losses of the allies are stated at 4500 killed and 7500
wounded (British 670 killed and 1500 wounded). Of the French
and Bavarians 11,000 men, 100 guns and, 200 colours and
standards were taken; besides the killed and wounded, the
numbers of which were large but uncertain — many were drowned
in the Danube. Marsin's army, though it lost heavily, was
drawn off in good order; Tallard's was almost annihilated.

BLENNERHASSETT, HARMAN (1765-1831), Irish-American
lawyer, son of an Irish country gentleman of English stock
settled in Co. Kerry, was born on the 8th of October 1765. He
was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1790 was called
to the Irish bar. After living for several years on the continent,
he married in 1796 his niece, Margaret Agnew, daughter of
Robert Agnew, the lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Man.
Ostracised by their families for this step the couple decided to
settle in America, where Blennerhassett in 1798 bought an
island in the Ohio river about 2 m. below Parkersburg, West
Virginia. Here in 1805 he received a visit from Aaron Burr (q.v.),
in whose conspiracy he became interested, furnishing liberal funds
for its support, and offering the use of his island as a rendezvous
for the gathering of arms and supplies and the training of
volunteers. Wkn the conspiracy collapsed, the mansion and

island were occupied and plundered by the Virginia militia.
Blennerhassett fled, was twice arrested and remained a prisoner
until after Burr's release; The island was then abandoned, and
Blennerhassett was in. turn a cotton planter in Mississippi, and
a lawyer (1819-1822) in Montreal, Canada. After returning to
Ireland, he died in the island of Guernsey on the 2nd of February
1831. His wife, who had considerable literary talent and who
published The Deserted Isle (1822) and The Widow of the Rock
and Other Poems (1824), returned to the United States in 1840,
and died soon afterward in New York City while attempting to
obtain through Congress payment for property destroyed on the
island.

See William H. Safford, Life ofHarman Blennerhassett (Cincinnati,
1853) ; W. H. Safford (editor), The Blennerhassett Papers (Cincinnati,
1864); and "The True Story of Harman Blennerhassett," by
Therese Blennerhassett-Adams, in the Century Magazine for July
1 90 1, vol. lxii.

BLERA (mod. Bieda), an ancient Etruscan town on the Via
Clodia, about 3 2 m. N.N. W. of Rome. It was of little importance,
and is only mentioned by geographers and. in inscriptions. It
is situated on a long, narrow tongue of rock at the junction of
two deep glens. Some remains of the town walls still exist, and
also two ancient bridges, both belonging to the Via Clodia, and
many tombs hewn in the rock — small chambers imitating the
architectural forms of houses, with beams and rafters represented
in relief. See G, Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, i. 207.
There was another Blera in Apulia, on the road from Venusia to
Tarentum.

BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE, Countess of (1789-1849),
Irish novelist and miscellaneous writer, daughter of Edmund
Power, a small landowner, was born near Clonmel, Co. Tipperary,
Ireland, on the 1st of September 1789. Her childhood was made
unhappy by her father's character and poverty, and her early
womanhood wretched by her compulsory marriage at the age
of fifteen to a Captain Maurice St Leger Farmer, whose drunken
habits brought him at last as a debtor to the king's bench prison,
where, in October 181.7, he died. His wife had left him some
time before, and in February 1818 she married Charles John
Gardiner, earl of Blessington. Of rare beauty, charm and wit,
she was no less distinguished for her generosity and for the
extravagant tastes which she shared with her husband, which
resulted in encumbering his estates with a load of debt. In the
autumn of 1822 they went abroad, spent four months of the next
year at Genoa in close intimacy with Byron, and remained on
the continent till Lord Blessington's deathin May 1829. Some
time before this they had been joined by Count D'Orsay, who in
1827 married Lady Harriet Gardiner, Lord Blessington's only
daughter by a former wife. D'Orsay, who had soon separated
from his wife, now accompanied Lady Blessington to England
and lived with her till her death. Their home, first at Seamore
Place, and afterwards Gore House, Kensington, became a centre
of attraction for whatever was distinguished in literature,
learning, art, science and fashion. After her husband's death
she supplemented her diminished income by contributing to
various periodicals as well as by writing novels. She was for
some years editor of The Book of Beauty and The Keepsake,
popular annuals of the day. In 1834 she published her Conversa-
tions with Lord Byron. Her Idler in Italy (1839-1840), and
Idler in France (1841) were popular for their personal gossip and
anecdote, descriptions of nature and sentiment. Early in 1849,
Count D'Orsay left Gore House to escape his creditors; the
furniture and decorations were sold, and Lady Blessington joined
the count in Paris, where she died on the 4th of June 1849.

Her Literary Life and Correspondence (3 vols.), edited by R. R.
Madden, appeared in 1855. Her portrait was painted in 1808 by
Sir Thomas Lawrence.

BLIDA, a town of Algeria, in the department of Algiers,
32 m. by railway S.W. from Algiers, on the line to Oran.
Pop. (1906) 16,866. It lies surrounded with orchards and
gardens, 630 ft. above the sea, at the base of the Little Atlas,
on the southern edge of the fertile plain of the Metija, and the
right bank of the Wad-el-Kebir affluent of the Chiffa. The
abundant water of this stream provides power for large corn

BLIGH— BLINDNESS

mills and several factories, and also supplies the town, with its
numerous fountains and irrigated gardens. Blida is surrounded
by a wall of considerable extent, pierced by six gates, and is
further defended by Fort Mimieh, crowning a steep hill on the
left bank of the river. The present town, French in character,
has well-built modern streets with many arcades, and numbers
among its buildings several mosques and churches, extensive
barracks and a large military hospital. The principal square,
the place d'Armes, is surrounded by arcaded houses and shaded
by trees. The centre of a fertile district, and a post on one of
the main routes in the country, Blida has a flourishing trade,
chiefly in oranges and flour. The orange groves contain over
50,000 trees, and in April the air for miles round is laden with
the scent of the orange blossoms. In the public gardens is a
group of magnificent olive trees. The products of the neigh- •
bouring cork trees and cedar groves are a source of revenue
to the .town. In the vicinity are the villages of Joinville and
Montpensier, which owe their origin to military camps estab-
lished by Marshal Valee in 1838; and on the road to Medea
are the tombs of the marabout Mahommed-el-Kebir, who died
in 1580, and his two sons.

Blida, i.e. boleida, diminutive of the Arab word belad, city,
occupies the site of a military station in the time of the Romans,
but the present town appears to date from the 16th century.
A mosque was built by order of Khair-ed-din Barbarossa, and
under the Turks the town was of some importance. In 1825
it was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, but was speedily
rebuilt on a site about a mile distant from the ruins. It was not
till 1838 that it was finally held by the French, though they had
been in possession for a short time eight years before. In
April 1906 it was chosen as the place of detention of Behanzin,
the ex-king of Dahomey, who died in December of that
year.

Blida is the chief town of a commune of the same name,
having (1906) a population of 33, 332.

BLIGH, WILLIAM (1754-1817), English admiral, was born
of a good Cornish family in 1754. He accompanied Captain
Cook in his second expedition (177 2-1 774) as sailing-master of
the " Resolution." During the voyage, the bread-fruit, already
known to Dampier, was found by them at Otaheite; and after
seeing service under Lord Howe and elsewhere, " Bread-fruit
Bligh," as he was nicknamed, was despatched at the end of 1787
to the Pacific in command of H.M.S. " Bounty," for the purpose
of introducing it into the West Indies from the South Sea Islands.
Bligh sailed from Otaheite, after remaining there about six
months; but, when near the Friendly Islands, a mutiny (April
28, 1789) broke out on board the "Bounty," headed by
Fletcher Christian, the master's mate, and Bligh, with eighteen
others, was set adrift in the launch. The mutineers themselves
settled on Pitcairn Island (q.v.), but some of them were after-
wards captured, brought to England and in three cases executed.
This mutiny, which forms the subject of Byron's Island, did
not arise so much from tyranny on the part of Bligh as from
attachments contracted between the seamen and the women
of Otaheite. After suffering severely from hunger, thirst
and storms, Bligh and his companions landed at Timor in the
East Indies, having performed a voyage of about 4000 m. in
an open boat. Bligh returned to England in 1790, and he was
soon afterwards appointed to the " Providence," in which he
effected the purpose of his former appointment by introducing
the bread-fruit tree into the West India Islands. He showed
great courage at the mutiny of the Nore in 1797, and in the same
year took part in the battle of Camperdown, where Admiral
Duncan defeated the Dutch under De Winter. In 1801 he
commanded the " Glatton " (54) at the battle of Copenhagen,
and received the personal commendations of Nelson. In 1805
he was appointed " captain general and governor of New South
Wales." As he made himself intensely unpopular by the
harsh exercise of authority, he was deposed in January 1808
by a mutiny headed by Major George Johnston of the 102nd
foot, and was imprisoned by the mutineers till 1810. He re-
turned to England in 1811, was promoted to rear-admiral in

that year, and to vice-admiral in 1814. Major Johnston was
tried by court martial at Chelsea in 181 1, and was dismissed the
service. Bligh, who was an active, persevering and courageous
officer, died in London in 18 1 7.

BLIND, MATHILDE (1841-1896), English author, was born
at Mannheim on the 21st of March 1841. Her father was a
banker named Cohen, but she took the name of Blind after her
step-father, the political writer, Karl Blind (1 826-1 907), one
of the exiled leaders of the Baden insurrection in 1 848-1 849,
and an ardent supporter of the various 19th-century movements
for the freedom and autonomy of struggling nationalities. The
family was compelled to take refuge in England, where Mathilde
devoted herself to literature and to the higher education of
women. She produced also three long poems, " The Prophecy
of St Oran " (1881), " The Heather on Fire" (1886), an in-
dignant protest against the evictions in the Highlands, and
" The Ascent of Man " (1888), which was to be the epic of the
theory of evolution. She wrote biographies of George Eliot
(1883) and Madame Roland (1886), and translated D.F. Strauss's
The Old Faith and the New (1873-1874) and the Memoirs
of Marie Bashkirtsefi (1890). She died on the 26th of Nov-
ember 1896, bequeathing her property to Newnham College,
Cambridge.

A complete edition of her poems was edited by Mr Arthur Symons
in 1900, with a biographical introduction by Dr Richard Garnett.

BUND HOOKEY, a game of chance, played with a full pack
of cards. The deal, which is an advantage, is decided as at
whist, the cards being shuffled and cut as at whist. The dealer
gives a parcel of cards to each player including himself. Each
player puts the amount of his stake on his cards, which he must
not look at. The dealer has to take all bets. He then turns up
his parcel, exposing the bottom card. Each player in turn does
the same, winning or losing according as his cards are higher
or lower than the dealer's. Ties pay the dealer. The cards rank
as at whist. The suits are of no importance, the cards taking
precedence according to their face-value.

BLINDING, a form of punishment anciently common in many
lands, being inflicted on thieves, adulterers, perjurers and other
criminals. The inhabitants of Apollonia (Illyria) are said to
have inflicted this penalty on their " watch " when found asleep
at their posts. It was resorted to by the Roman emperors in
their persecutions of the Christians. The method of destroying .
the sight varied. Sometimes a mixture of lime and vinegar, or
barely scalding vinegar alone, was poured into the eyes. Some-
times a rope was twisted round the victim's head till the eyes
started out of their sockets. In the middle ages the punishment
seems to have been changed from total blindness to a permanent
injury to the eyes, amounting, however, almost to blindness,
produced by holding a red-hot iron dish or basin before the face.
Under the forest laws of the Norman kings of England blinding
was a common penalty. Shakespeare makes King John order
his nephew Arthur's eyes to be burnt out.

BLINDMAN'S-BUFF (from an O. Fr. word, buffe, a blow,
especially a blow on the cheek), a game in which one player is
blindfolded and made to catch and identify one of the others,
who in sport push him about and " buffet " him.

BLINDNESS, the condition of being blind (a common Teutonic
word), i.e. devoid of sight (see also Vision; and Eye: Diseases).
The data furnished in various countries by the census of 1901
showed generally a decrease in blindness, due to the progress in
medical science, use of antiseptics, better sanitation, control of
infectious diseases, and better protection in shops and factories.
Blindness is much more common in hot countries than in
temperate and cold regions, but Finland and Iceland are excep-
tions to the general rule. 1 In hot countries the eyes are affected
by the glaring sunlight, the dust and the dryness of the air.
From statistics in Italy, France and Belgium, localities on the
coast seem to have more blind persons than those at a distance
from the sea.

1 There are no late returns for Iceland, but the last available
statistics gave 3400 per million. A paper written in 1903 on blindness
in Egypt stated that 1 in every 50 of the population was blind.

BLINDNESS

The following table gives the number of blind persons as reported
in the census of each country. Unless otherwise stated, it refers to
the statistics of 1900.

Country.

Austria

Belgium

Canada

Denmark

England

France

Finland l

Germany

Hungary

Ireland

Italy

Holland (1890)

Norway

Portugal

Sweden

Switzerland (1895) ....

Scotland

Spain (1877)

Russia

United States (corrected census)

Total
Number.

Number

per Million

of Population.

14.582
3448
3279
1047

25.317

27.174

3229

34.334

19.377

4 2 63

38,160

2114

1879

5650

3413

2107

3253
24,608

85,662

540

487

610

427

778

698
1191

609
1006

954
1 175

414

838
1040

664

722

727

1006

about 2000

1125

Causes and Prevention
There are many cases of complete or partial blindness which
might have been prevented, and a knowledge of the best methods
of prevention and cure should be spread as widely as possible.
Magnus, Bremer, Steffen and Rossler are of opinion that 40 % of
the cases of blindness might have been prevented. Hayes gives
33.35% as positively avoidable, 38-75% possibly avoidable,
and 46 • 2 7 % as a conservative estimate. Cohn regards blindness
as certainly preventable in 33 %, as probably preventable in
43 %, and as quite unpreventable in only 24 %. If we take the
lowest of these figures, and assume that 400 out of every 1000
blind persons might have been saved from such a calamity,
we realize the importance of preventative measures. For the
physiology and pathology of the eye generally, see Vision and

Eye.

The great majority of these cases are due to infantile purulent
ophthalmia. This arises from inoculation of the eyes with
hurtful material at time of birth. If the contagious
Ophthal- discharges are allowed to remain, violent inflammation
mia ' is set up which usually ends in the loss of sight. It

depends on the presence of a microbe, and the effective applica-
tion of a weak solution of nitrate of silver is curative, if made in a
proper manner at an early period of the case. In Germany,
midwives are expressly prohibited by law from treating any
affection of the eyes or eyelids of infants, however slight. On the
appearance of the first symptoms, they are required to represent
to the parents, or others in charge, that medical assistance is
urgently needed, or, if necessary, they are themselves to report
to the local authorities and the district doctor. Neglect of
these regulations entails liability to punishment. Eleven of the
United States of America have enacted laws requiring that, if
one or both eyes of an infant should become inflamed, swollen or
reddened at any time within two weeks of its birth, it shall be the
duty of the midwife or nurse having charge of such infant to
report in writing within six hours, to the health officer or some
legally qualified physician, the fact that such inflammation,
swelling or redness exists. The penalty for failure to comply is
fine or imprisonment.

The following weighty words, from a paper prepared by Dr
Park Lewis, of Buffalo, N.Y., for the American Medical Associa-
tion, show that laws are not sufficient to prevent evil, unless
supported by strong public sentiment: —

" When an enlightened, civilized and progressive nation quietly
and passively, year after year, permits a multitude of its people un-
necessarily to become blind, and more especially when one-quarter

1 Previous returns from Finland have shown a much larger number
of blind persons, but these statistics were supplied by the British
consul in St Petersburg from the last census.

of these are infants, the reason for such a startling condition of
affairs demands explanation. That such is the fact, practically all
reliable ophthalmologists agree. •

" From a summary of carefully tabulated statistics it has been
demonstrated that at least four-tenths of all existing blindness
might have been avoided had proper preventative or curative
measures been employed, while one-quarter of this, or one-tenth of
the whole, is due to ophthalmia neonatorum, an infectious, prevent-
able and almost absolutely curable disease. Perhaps this statement
will take on a new meaning when it is added that there are in the
state of New York alone more than 6000, and in the United States
more than 50,000 blind people; of these 600 in the one state, and
5000 in the country, would have been saved from lives of darkness
and unhappiness, in having lost all the joys that come through sight,
and of more or less complete dependence — for no individual can be
as self-sufficient without as with eyes — if a simple, safe and easily
applied precautionary measure had been taken at the right time
and in the right way to prevent this affliction. The following three
vital facts are not questioned, but are universally accepted by those
qualified to know : —

" 1. The ophthalmia of infancy is an infectious germ disease.
" 2. By the instillation of a silver salt in the eyes of a new-born
infant the disease is prevented from developing in all but an exceed-
ingly small number of the cases in which it would otherwise have
appeared. .

" 3. In practically all those few exceptional cases the disease is
absolutely curable, if like treatment is employed at a sufficiently
early period. < .

" Since these facts are no longer subjects of discussion, but are
universally accepted by all educated medical men, the natural
inquiry follows: Why, as a common-sense proposition, are not
these simple, harmless, preventive measures invariably employed}
and why, in consequence of this neglect, does a nation sit quietly
and indifferently by, making no attempt to prevent this enormous
and needless waste of human eyes ? _

" The reasons are three-fold, and lie — first, with the medical
profession; second, with the lay public; third, with the state.

" For the education of its blind children annually New York alone
pays per capita at least $350, and a yearly gross sum amounting to
much more than $100,000. If, as sometimes happens, the blind
citizen is a dependent throughout a long life, the cost of maintenance
is not less than $10,000, and the mere cost in money will be multi-
plied many times in that a productive factor, by reason of blindness,
has been removed from the community. ,,■•■'

" If, therefore, as an economic proposition, it were realized how
vitally it concerns the state that not one child shall needlessly
become blind, thereby increasing the public financial burden, there
is no doubt that early and effective measures would be instituted to
protect the state from this unnecessary and extravagant expenditure
of public funds. ...

" Eleven states have passed legislative enactments requiring that
the midwife shall report each case to the proper health authority,
and affixing a penalty for the failure to do so. As has been intimated,
however, it is not by any means always under the ministration of
midwives that these cases occur, and, like all laws behind which is
not a strong and well-informed public sentiment, this law is rarely
enforced. A more effective method must be devised. Every
physician having to do with the parturient woman, every obstet-
rician, every midwife, must be frequently and constantly advised
of the dangers and possibilities of this disease, the necessity of
prevention, and the value of early and correct treatment. They
must then have placed in their hands, ready for instant use, a safe
and efficient preparation, issued by the health authorities as a
guarantee as to its quality and efficiency.

" An important step was taken in this direction when a resolution
was passed by the House of Delegates at the annual meeting of the
New York State Medical Society, requesting the various health
officers of the state to include ophthalmia neonatorum among
contagious diseases which must be reported to the local boards of
health. .....

" The second essential, in order that the cause of infantile
ophthalmia be abolished, is that a solution of the necessary silver
salt be prepared under the authority of somebody capable of in-
spiring universal confidence, and that it be distributed by the health
department of every state gratuitously to every obstetrician,
physician or midwife qualified to care for the parturient woman.
The nature of the solution, together with the character of the
descriptive card which should accompany it, should be determined
by a committee, chosen by the president of the American Medical
Association, which should have among its members at least one
representative ophthalmologist, one obstetrician and one sanitarian;
The conclusions of this committee should be reported back to the
House of Delegates, so that the preparation and its text should carry
with it, on the great authority of this association, the assurance that
the solution is entirely safe and necessary, and that its use should
invariably be part of the toilet of every new-born child, lne
solution, probably silver nitrate, could be put up either by the state
itself or by some trustworthy pharmacist, at an insignificant cost;
its purity and sterility should be vouched for by the board of health
of the state. It should be enclosed in specially prepared receptacles,

BLINDNESS

each containing a special quantity, and so arranged that it may
be used drop by drop. These, properly enclosed, accompanied by a
brief lucid explanation of the danger of the disease, the necessity of
this germicide, the method of its employment, and the right subse-
quent care of the eyes, should be sent to the obstetrician on the
receipt of each birth certificate.

" I have said that responsibility for the indifference that is annu-
ally resulting in such frightful disaster lies primarily with the state,
the public and the medical profession.

" The state is already aroused to the necessity of taking effective
measures to wipe out this controllable plague. Bills have been
introduced in the legislature of Massachusetts and of New York,
providing for the appointment of commissions for the blind, one of
whose duties w i" De to study the causes of unnecessary blindness
and to suggest preventative measures."

One of the most common diseases of the eye is trachoma, often
dalled "granular lids," because the inner surface of the lid
_ . seems to be covered with little granulations. The

' disease sometimes lasts for years without causing
blindness, though it gives rise to great irritation. It is generally
attended by a discharge, which is highly contagious, producing
the same disease if it gets into other eyes. Want of cleanliness
is one of the most important factors in the propagation of
trachoma, hence its great prevalence in Oriental countries.
Trachoma is very prevalent in Egypt, where those suffering
from total or partial blindness are said to amount to 10%
of the population. During Napoleon's Egyptian campaign,
nearly every soldier, out of an army of 32,000 men, was affected.
During the following twenty years the disease spread through
almost all European armies. In the Belgian army, there was
one trachomatous soldier out of every five, and up to 1834 no
less than 4000 soldiers had lost both eyes and 10,000 one eye.
It is a disease which is very common in workhouse schools,
orphan asylums and similar establishments. Unlike ophthalmia
of riew-born children, it is difficult to cure, and a total separation
of the diseased from the healthy children should be effected.

About one-half of those who are blinded by injuries lose the
second eye by sympathetic ophthalmia. It is a constant source
of danger to those who retain an eye blinded by
thetic injury. Blindness from this cause can be prevented

Inflamma- by the removal of the injured eye, but unfortunately
ilon ' the proposal often meets with opposition from the

patient.

Glaucoma is a disease which almost invariably leads to total

blindness; but in most cases it can be arrested by
Glaucoma. . ' . . _

a simple operation if the case is seen suffi-
ciently early.

Myopia, or " short-sight," makes itself apparent in children
between the ages of seven and nine. Neglect of a year or two
may do serious mischief. Short-sight, when not
inherited, is produced by looking intently and con-
tinuously at near objects. Children should be
encouraged to describe objects at a distance, with which they are
unacquainted, and parents should choose out-door occupations
and amusements for children who show a tendency to short-
sightedness.

A report was issued in 1906, by the school board of Glasgow,
as to an investigation by Dr H. Wright Thomas, ophthalmic
surgeon, regarding the eyesight of school children, which in-
cludes the following passage. Dr Wright Thomas states that
the teachers tested the visual acuteness of 52,493 children, and
found 18,565, or 35%, to be below what is regarded as the
normal standard. He examined the 18,565 defectives by retino-
scopy, and found that 11,209, or 21 % of the whole, had ocular
defects. The proportion of these cases was highest in the poor
and closely-built districts and in old schools, and was lowest
in the better-class schools and those near the outskirts of the
city. Defective vision, apart from ocular defect, seems to be
due partly to want of training of the eyes for distant objects
and partly to exhaustion of the eyes, which is easily induced
when work is carried on in bad light, or the nutrition of the
children is defective from bad feeding and unhealthy surround-
ings. Regarding training of the eyes for distant objects, much
might be done in the infant department by the total abolition
of sewing, which is definitely hurtful to such young eyes, and

Short-
sight.

the substitution of competitive games involving the recognition
of small objects at a distance of 20 ft. or more. An annual testing
by the teachers, followed by medical inspection of the children
found defective, would soon cause all existing defects to be
corrected, and would lead to the detection of those which
develop during school life.

History of Institutions

Although there is a record of a hospital established by St Basil
at Caesarea, Cappadocia, in the 4th century, a refuge by the
hermit St Lymnee (d. c. 455) at Syr, Syria, in the 5th century,
and an institution by St Bertrand, bishop of Le Mans, in the
7th century, the first public effort to benefit the blind was the
founding of a hospital at Paris, in 1260, by Louis IX., for 300
blind persons. The common legend is that he founded it as an
asylum for 300 of his soldiers who had become blinded in the
crusade in Egypt, but the statutes of the founder are preserved,
and no mention is made of crusaders. This Hospice des Quinze-
Vingts, increased by subsequent additions to its funds, still
assists the adult blind of France. The pensioners are divided
into two classes — those who are inmates of the hospital (300), and
those who receive pensions in the form of out -door relief. All
appointments to inmates or pensions are vested in the minister
of the Interior, and applicants must be of French nationality,
totally blind and not less than forty years of age.

From the time of St Louis to the 18th century, there are
records of isolated cases of blind persons who were educated,
and of efforts to devise tangible apparatus to assist them.

Girolamo Cardan, the 16th-century Italian physician, con-
ceived the idea that the blind could be taught to read and write
by means of touch. About 1517 Francesco Lucas in Spain,
and Rampazetto in Italy, made use of large letters cut in wood
for instructing the blind. In 1646 a book, on the condition of
the blind, was written by an Italian, and published in Italian
and French, under the title of L'Aveugle afflige et consols. In
1670 a book was written on the instruction of the blind by
Lana Terzi, the Jesuit. In 1676 Jacques Bernoulli, the Swiss
savant, taught a blind girl to read, but the means of her in-
struction were not made known. In 1749 D. Diderot wrote his
Leltre'sur Us aveugles a I' usage de ceux qui voient, to show how
far the intellectual and moral nature of man is modified by
blindness. Dr S. G. Howe, who many years after translated
and printed the "Letter" in embossed type, characterizes it as
abounding with errors of fact and inference, but also with
beauties and suggestions. The heterodox speculations contained
in his "Letter on the Blind " caused Diderot to be imprisoned
three months in the Bastille. He was released because his services
were required for the forthcoming Encyclopaedia. Rousseau
visited Diderot in prison, and is reported to have suggested a
system of embossed printing. J. Locke, G. W. Leibnitz,
Molineau and others discussed the effect of blindness on the
human mind. In Germany, Weissembourg had used signs in
relief and taught Mile Paradis.

Prior to the 18th century, blind beggars existed in such
numbers that they struggled for standing room in positions
favourable for asking alms. Their very affliction led to their
being used as spectacles for the amusement of the populace.
The degraded state of the masses of the blind in France attracted
the attention of Valentin Hauy. In 1 771, at the annual fair of
St Ovid, in Paris, an innkeeper had a group of blind men attired
in a ridiculous manner, decorated with peacock tails, asses' ears,
and pasteboard spectacles without glasses, in which condition
they gave a burlesque concert, for the profit of their employer.
This sad scene was repeated day after day, and greeted with
loud laughter by the gaping crowds. Among those who gazed
at this outrage to humanity was the philanthropist Valentin
Hauy, who left the disgraceful scene full of sorrow. " Yes,"
he said to himself, " I will substitute truth for this mocking
parody. I will make the blind to read, and they shall be enabled
to execute harmonious music." Hauy collected all the infor-
mation he could gain respecting the blind, and began teaching
a blind boy who had gained his living by begging at a church

BLINDNESS

door. Encouraged by the success of his pupil, Hatty collected
other blind persons, and in 1785 founded in Paris the first school
for the blind (the Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles),
and commenced the first printing in raised characters. In 1786,
before Louis XVI. and his court at Versailles, he exhibited the
attainments of his pupils in reading, writing, arithmetic, geo-
graphy and music, and in the same year published an account
of his methods, entitled Essai sur V education des aveugles. As
the novelty wore off, contributions almost came to an end, and
the Blind School must have ceased to exist, had it not been taken,
in 1 791, under the protection of the state.

The emperor of Russia, and later the dowager empress, having
learned of Hatty's work, invited him to visit St Petersburg
for the purpose of establishing a similar institution in the Russian
capital. On his journey Haiiy was invited by the king of
Prussia to Charlottenburg. He took part in the deliberations
of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and as a result a school
was founded there.

Edward Rushton, a blind man, was the projector of the first
institution for the blind in England — the School for the Indigent
Blind, Liverpool. In 1790 Rushton suggested to the literary
and philosophical society of which he was a member, the estab-
lishment of a benefit club for the indigent blind. The idea was
communicated to his friend, J. Christie, a blind musician, and
the latter thought the scheme should also include the instruc-
tion of young blind persons. They circulated letters amongst
individuals who would be likely to give their assistance, and the
Rev. Henry Dannett warmly advocated the undertaking. It
was mainly due to his co-operation and zeal that Messrs Rushton
and Christie's plan was carried out, and the Liverpool asylum
was opened in 1791. Thomas Blacklock of Edinburgh, a blind
poet and scholar, translated Hatty's work on the Education
of the Blind. He interested Mr David Millar, a blind gentle-
man, the Rev. David Johnston and others in the subject, and
after Blacklock's death the Edinburgh Asylum for the Relief
of the Indigent and Industrious Blind was established (1793).
Institutions were established in the United Kingdom in the
following order : —

School for the Indigent Blind, Liverpool . . . 1791

Royal Blind Asylum, Edinburgh .... 1793

Bristol Asylum 1793

School for the Indigent Blind, Southwark (now

removed to Leatherhead) 1799

Norwich Asylum and School 1805

Richmond Asylum, Dublin 1810

Aberdeen Asylum 1812

Molyneux Asylum, Dublin 1815

Glasgow Asylum and School 1827

Belfast School 1 83 1

Wilberforce School, York 1833

Limerick Asylum 1834

London Society for Teaching the Blind to Read, St

John's Wood, N 1838

Royal Victoria School for the Blind, Newcastle-on-

Tyne 1838

West of England Institute for the Blind, Exeter . 1838

Henshaw's Blind Asylum, Manchester . . . 1839

County and City of Cork Asylum .... 1840

Catholic Asylum, Liverpool. ..... 1841

Brighton Asylum 1842

Midland Institute for the Blind, Nottingham . . 1843

General Institute for the Blind, Birmingham . . 1848

Macan Asylum, Armagh ...... 1854

St Joseph's Asylum, Dublin 1858

St Mary's Asylum, Dublin . . . . . 1858

Institute for the Blind, Devonport i860

South Devon and Cornwall Institute for the Blind,

Plymouth i860

School for the Blind, Southsea 1864

Institute for the Blind, Dundee 1865

South Wales Institute for the Blind, Swansea . 1865

School for the Blind, Leeds 1866

College for the Sons of Gentlemen, Worcester . 1866

Northern Counties Institute for the Blind, Inverness 1866
Royal Normal College and Academy of Music for the

Blind, Upper Norwood 1872

School for the Blind, Sheffield . . . . . 1879

Barclay Home and School for Blind Girls, Brighton 1893

Homes for Blind Children, Preston . . . . 1895
North Stafford School, Stoke-on-Trent . . .1897

Many of the early institutions were asylums, and to the present
day schools for the blind are regarded by the public as asylums
rather than as educational establishments. With nearly all
these schools workshops were connected. In 1856 Miss Gilbert,
the blind daughter of the bishop of Chichester, established a
workshop in Berners Street, London, and since that date
workshops have been started in many of the provincial
towns. ......

After the beginning of the 19th century, institutions for the
blind were established in various parts of Europe. The iristitur
tion at Vienna was founded in 1804 by Dr W; Klein, a blind man,
and he remained at its head for fifty years. That of Berlin was
established in 1806, Amsterdam, Prague and Dresden in 1808,
Copenhagen in 181 1. There are more than 150 on the European
continent, most of them receiving aid from the government,
and being under government supervision.

The first school for the blind in the United States was founded
in Boston, Mass., chiefly through the efforts of DrJohnD. Fisher,
a young physician who visited the French school. It was
incorporated in 1829, and in honour of T.H. Perkins (1764-1854)
who gave his mansion to the institution was named the Perkins In r
stitution and Massachusetts Asylum (now School) for the Blind.
Aid was granted by the state from the beginning. In 183 1 Dr
Samuel G. Howe (q.v.) was appointed director, and held that
position for nearly forty-four years, being succeeded by his
son-in-law Michael Anagnos (d. 1906), who established a kinder-
garten for the blind at Jamaica Plain, in connexion with the
Perkins Institution. Dr Howe was interested in many charitable
and sociological movements, but his life-work was on behalf of
the blind. One of his most notable achievements was the
education of Laura Bridgman (q.v.), who was deaf, dumb and
blind, and this has since led to the education of Helen Keller
and other blind deaf-mutes. The New York Institution was
incorporated in 183 1, and the Pennsylvania Institution was
founded at Philadelphia by the Society of Friends in 1833. The
Ohio was founded at Columbus in 1837, Virginia at Staunton in
1839, Kentucky at Louisville in 1842, Tennessee at Nashville
in 1844, and now every state in the Union makes provision for
the education of the blind.

Statistics

In England and Wales the total number of persons returned
in 1901 as afflicted with blindness was 25,317, being in the
proportion of 778 per million living, or 1 blind persdn •
in every 1285 of the population. The following table England
shows that the proportion of blind persons to popula- Wahs. '
tion has diminished at each successive enumeration
since 1851, in which year particulars of those afflicted in this
manner were ascertained for the first time. It will, however,
be noted that, although the decrease in the proportion of blind
in the latest intercensal period was still considerable, yet the
rate of decrease which had obtained between 1871 and 1891 was
not maintained. -

Number of

Blind per Million

Persons Living to

Year.

Blind.

of the Population.

one Blind Person,;

1851

18,306

1 02 1

979

1861

19.352

964

1037

1871

21,590

951

1052

1881

22,832

879

.■• 1138 : -

1891

23.467

809

1236 .

1901

.25,317

778

1285

The following table, which gives the proportions of blind
per million living at the earlier age-groups, shows that in the
decennium 1891-1901, as also in recent previous intercensal
periods, there was a decrease in the proportion of blind children
in England and Wales generally; it thus lends support to the
contention, in the General Report for 1891, that the decrease was
due either to the lesser prevalence, or to the more efficient
treatment, of purulent ophthalmia and other infantile maladies
which may result in blindness.

BLINDNESS

Age-Period.

1851

1861

1871

1881

1891

1901

Under 5 years

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

198
297

365
416
481

196
256
366
415

443

185
259 }
359)
404

45i

166

288

388
422

, *55

( 188

( 290

370

385

129
192
323
329
359

Total under 25

339

322

317

298

269

261

In 1886 a royal commission on the Wind, deaf and dumb was
appointed by the government, and, after taking much valuable
evidence, issued an exhaustive and instructive report. Following
on the practical recommendations submitted by this commission,
the Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act 1893,
was passed, under which the education of the blind became for
the first time compulsory. In terms of this statute, the school
authorities were made responsible for the provision of suitable
elementary education for blind children up to sixteen years of
age, and grants. of £3, 3s. for elementary subjects, and of £2, 2s.
for industrial training, were contributed by the state towards
the cost of educating children in schools certified as efficient
within the meaning of the. Elementary Education Act 1876.
The principal aim of the Education Act of 1893 was to supply
education in some useful profession or trade which will enable
the blind to earn their livelihood and to become useful citizens;
but the weak spot was that no provision was made therein for
the completion of their education and industrial training after
the age of sixteen.

In England and Wales, in 1907, there were twenty-four
resident schools and forty-three workshops for the blind. In
many of the large towns, day classes for the education of blind
children have been established by local education authorities.
There are forty-six home teaching societies, who send teachers
to visit the blind in their homes, to teach adults who wish to
learn to read, to act as colporteurs, to lend and exchange useful
books, and to act as Scripture readers to those who are aged and
infirm. All the home teaching societies for the blind and many
public . libraries lend embossed books. The public library at
Oxford has nearly 400 volumes of classical works for the use of
university students.

A society was instituted in 1847 by ^ r W. Moon for stereo-
typing and embossing the Scriptures and other books in
" Moon " type. The type has been adapted to over 400
languages and dialects. After Dr Moon's death in 1884 the work
was carried on by his daughter, Miss Adelaide Moon, and the
books are much used by the adult blind.

In 1868 Dr T. R. Armitage, being aware of the great improve-
ments which had been made in the education of the blind in
other countries, founded the British and Foreign Blind Associa-
tion. This association was formed for the purpose of promoting
the education and employment of the blind, by ascertaining
what had been done in these respects in various countries, by
endeavouring to supply deficiencies where these were found to
exist, and by attempting to bring about greater harmony of
action between the different existing schools and institutions.
It gave a new impetus to the education and training of the blind
in the United Kingdom. At that time their education was in
a state of chaos. The Bible, or a great part of it, had been
printed in five different systems. The founders took as an axiom ;
that the relative merits of .the various methods of education
through the sense of touch should be decided by those and those
only who have to rely on this sense. The council, who were all
totally or partially blind, spent two years in comparing the
different systems of embossed print. In 1869 and 1870 Dr
Armitage corresponded with Dr J. R. Russ in regard to the New
York Point. No trouble was spared to arrive at a right conclu-
sion. The Braille system was finally adopted, and the association
at once became a centre for supplying frames for writing Braille,
printed books, maps, music and other educational apparatus
for the blind. All books printed by the association are printed
from stereotyped plates embossed by blind copyists. About
3000 separate works, varying in length from 1 to 12 volumes,

have been copied by hand to meet the requirements of public
libraries and individuals. About 700 ladies, who give their
services, make the first Braille copy of these books, and they are
recopied by "blind scribes, chiefly women and girls, who are paid
for their work.

The National Lending library, London, was founded in 1882.
It has over 5500 volumes in Braille and other types. Books are
forwarded to all parts of the United Kingdom.

There are fourteen magazines published in embossed type in
the United Kingdom. ■•

There are thirty-six pension societies — the principal are
Hetherington's, Day's, the Qothworkers', the Cordwainers',
the National Blind Relief Society, Royal Blind Pension Society
and Indigent Blind Visiting Society.

The Gardner Trust administers the income of £300,000 left
by Henry Gardner in 1879. The income is used for in-
structing the blind in the profession of music, in suitable
trades, handicrafts and professions other than music, for
pensions, and free grants to institutions and individuals for
special purposes.

According to the census of 1901, Scotland had ^253 (or 727 per
million) blind persons, as against 2797 in 1891, but in a paper read
at the conference in Edinburgh, 1906, the superintendent .

of the Glasgow Mission to the Out-door Blind' stated Scotiana -
that there were 758 employed or being educated in institutions, and
3238 known as " out-door blind," making a total of 3996. . There are
in Scotland ten missions, so distributed as to cover the whole country,
and regular visits are made as far north as the Orkney and Shetland
Islands. In carrying on the work, there are twenty-four paid
missionaries or teachers and a large number of voluntary helpers.
These societies originated in a desire to teach the blind to read
in their own homes, and to provide them with the Scriptures and
other religious books, but the social, intellectual and temporal needs
of the blind also receive a large share of attention. These teachers
afford the best means of circulating embossed literature, therefore
the library committee of the Glasgow corporation has agreed to
purchase books and place them in the mission library instead of in
the public library. As the institutions provide for only a small
number of the blind, strenuous efforts are made by the committee
and teachers of missions to find some employment for the many
adults who come under their care.

In Glasgow, a ladies' auxiliary furnishes work for 150 knitters,
and takes the responsibility of disposing of their work. In Scotland
there are five schools for the young blind, and in connexion with
each is a workshop for adults. In Edinburgh the school is at West
Craigmillar, and the workshop in the city, but both are under the
same board of directors.

According to the census of 1901, there were 4253 totally blind
persons in Ireland, a proportion of 954 per million, as against 1 135
in 1891. Of these, 2430 were over 60 years of age and
II over 100. These figures do not include the partially Ireland.
blind, who numbered 12 17. The fact that so many aged blind
persons are to be found in Ireland is doubtless due to an ophthalmic
epidemic which occurred during the Irish famine. There are twelve
institutions, a home mission and home teaching society; nine of
these institutions are asylums, that system having been largely
adopted in Ireland. The scarcity of manufacturing industries,
except in a few northern counties, entails a lack of work suited to
the blind. The Elementary Education Act (Blind and Deaf) does
not extend to Ireland.

The following table gives the number of blind in age-groups in
1901 : —

Age-Period.

Number.

Age-Period.

Number.

Under 5 years

50-55

392

5-10

55-6o

314

10-15

60-65

617

15-20

65-70

382

20-25

70-75

540

25-30

116

75-80

306

30-35

146

80-85

37 2

35-40

146

85-90

118

40-45

205

95 and upwards

45-50

224

In the Dominion of Canada, South Africa, the states of the
Australian Commonwealth and New Zealand, provision is made by
the government for the education of the young blind, and
in some cases for training the adults in handicrafts.
Embossed literature is carried free of expense, and on the
Victorian railways no charge is made for the guide who accompanies
a blind person.

British
Colonies.

6 4

The following were the census returns for 1901 : —

Victoria

. 1082

Tasmania .

173

New South Wales

. 884

New Zealand .

274 (1891)

South Australia

• 315

Natal . . .

Queensland

. 209

Cape Colony .

2802 (1904)

West Australia

. 121

Canada

3279

United
States.

In Australia there are institutions for the blind at Melbourne,
Sydney, Adelaide, Brighton, Brisbane and Maylands near Perth. In
New Zealand the institution is at Auckland.

InCapeColony, between 1875 and 1891, there was an extraordinary
increase in blindness, but between 1891 and 1904 the rate per 10,000
has decreased 23-78 %. There is an institution at
Worcester for deaf-mutes and blind, founded in
1 88 1. It is supported by a government grant,
fees and subscription.

Schools for the blind were established by the
Dominion government at Brantford, Ontario
(1871), and Halifax, Nova Scotia (1867).

In Montreal there are two private institutions,
the M'Kay Institute for Protestant Deaf-Mutes
and Blind, and a school for Roman Catholic
children under the charge of the Sisters of Char-
ity.

In the United States the education of the
blind is not regarded as a charity, but forms

part of the educational system of the

country, and is carried on at the

public expense. According to the
A nnualReporloi the Commissioner of Education
for 1908, there were 40 state schools, with
4340 pupils. The value of apparatus, grounds
and buildings was $9,201,161. For salaries
and other expenditure, the aggregate was
$1,460,732. The United States government
appropriates $10,000 annually for printing em-
bossed books, which are distributed among the
different state schools for the blind. Beside
these state schools, there are workshops for the
blind subsidized by the state government or the
municipality. Commissions composed of able
men have recently been appointed in several
of the states to take charge of the affairs of
the blind from infancy to old age. The ex-
haustive summary of the 12th census enables these commissions
to communicate with every blind person in their respective states.
At the 1 2th census a change was made in the plan for securing
the returns, and the work of the enumerators was restricted to a
brief preliminary return, showing only the name, sex, age, post
office address, and nature of the existing defects in all persons
alleged to be blind or deaf. Dr Alexander Graham Bell, of
Washington, D.C., was appointed expert special agent of the
census office for the preparation of a report on the deaf and blind.
He was empowered to conduct in his own name a correspondence
relating to this branch of the census inquiry. A circular con-
taining eighteen questions was addressed to every blind person
given in the census, and from the data contained in the replies
the following tables (I., II., III., IV.) have been compiled.

Table I. — The Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Sex.

BLINDNESS

The enumerators reported a total of 101,123 persons alleged to be
blind as defined in the instructions contained in the schedules, but
this number was greatly reduced as a result of the correspondence
directly with the individuals, 8842 reporting that the alleged defect
did not exist, and 6544 that they were blind only in one eye but
were able to see with the other, and hence did not come within the
scope of the inquiry. No replies were received in 19,884 cases in
which personal schedules were sent, although repeated inquiries
were made; consequently these cases were dropped. In 380 cases
the personal schedules returned were too incomplete for use, and
in 75 cases duplication was discovered. The number of cases
remaining for statistical treatment, after making the eliminations

Table II. — The Blind, by Degree of Blindness, Age-Periods, Colour and Nativity.

Degree of Blindness and
Age- Period.

All Classes.

White.

Coloured.

Total.

Native.

Foreign-
born.

Number — ■
The blind . .
Under 20 years .
20 years and over
Age unknown.

64,763

8,308

56,165

290

56,535

7,252

49,067

216

45,479

6,937

38,388

154

10,694

231

10,420

8228

1056

7098

The totally blind
Under 20 years .
20 years and over
Age unknown.

35,645

4,123

31,363

159

30,359

3,543

26,704

112

23,636

3,377

20,179

6,511

129

6,363

5286

580

4659

The partially blind
Under 20 years .
20 years and over
Age unknown.

29,118

4,185
24,802

131

26,176

3,709

22,363

104

21,843

3,56o

18,209

4,i83
102

4,057
24

2942
476

2439

Number per 1 ,000,000

population of same age — ■

The blind ....

Under 20 years .

20 years and over

852

247

1,334

846

250

1,305

804

248

1,348

1,047

215

i,H3

896

229

1574

The totally blind
Under 20 years .
20 years and over

469
123

745

454
122
710

418
121
708

637
120
698

576

126

1033

The partially blind
Under 20 years .
20 years and over

-383
124

589

392

128

595

386
127
639

410
95

445

320
103
54i

Sex.

The
Blind.

The

Totally

Blind.

The

Partially

Blind.

Number —

Total

Male

64,763
37,°H
27,709

35,645
20,144
15,501

29,n8
16,910
12,208

Per cent distribution —

Total

Male

1000

57-2
42-8

ioo-o
56-5

43-5

IOO-O

58-i
41-9

Number per 1,000,000 population
of same sex —

Male

852
955
745

469
519

417

383
436
328

and corrections, was 64,763, representing 35,645 totally blind, and
29,118 partially blind. This number, however, can be considered
only as the minimum, as an unknown proportion of the blind were
not located by the enumerators, and doubtless a considerable
porportion of the 19,884 persons who failed to return the personal
schedules should be included in the total.

" Blindness, either total or partial, is so largely a defect of the
aged, and occurs with so much greater frequency as the age advances
and the population diminishes, that in any comparison of the pro-
portion of the blind in the general population of different classes,
such as native and foreign-born whites, or white and coloured, the
age distribution of the population of each class should be constantly
borne in mind. The differences in this respect account for many of
the differences in the gross ratios, and it is only when ratios are
compared for classes of population of identical ages that their relative
liability to blindness can be properly inferred."

Table II. shows the classification, by degree of blindness, of the
blind under twenty years of age, twenty years of age and over, and of
unknown age, with respect to colour and nativity, with the number
at the specified ages per million of population in the same age-group.

The relationship or consanguinity of parents of the 64,763 blind
was reported in 56,507 cases, in 2527 (or 4-5 %) of which the parents
were related as cousins.

In 57,726 cases the inquiry as to the existence of blind relatives
was answered; 10,967 (or 19%) of this number reported that they
had blind relatives.

Of the 2527 blind persons whose parents were cousins, 993 (or
39-3%) had blind relatives, — 844 having blind brothers, sisters or
ancestors, and 149 having blind collateral relatives or descendants.

Of the 53,980 blind whose parents were not related, 9490 (or
17-6%) had blind relatives, 7395 having blind brothers, sisters or
ancestors, and 2095 having blind collateral relatives or descendants.

It was found that, of the 2527 blind whose parents were cousins,
632 (or 25%) were congenitally blind, of whom 350 (or 55-4%)
had also blind relatives of the classes specified ; while, among the
53,980 whose parents were not so related, the number of congenitally
blind was 3666 (or but 6-8%), of whom only 1023 (or 27-9%) had
blind relatives.

In 1883 the number of blind in France was estimated at 32,056,
the total population of the country being 38,000,000; 2548 of the

BLINDNESS

blind were under, and 29,568 above, 21 years of age; of the former
857 were receiving instruction in 21 schools supported by the state,
p by the city of Paris, by some of the departments, and by

P"""*- some religious bodies. The four Parisian institutions
are the Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, the Ecole Braille
(founded in 1883), the Etablissement des Sceurs Aveugles de St Paul

Table III.— The Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Ag

e-Periods.

The

Age-Period.

The
Blind.

Totally

Partially

Blind.

Number —

All ages

64,763

35,645

29,118

Under 10 years .

2,307

1,262

1,045

10-19 ,,

6,001

2,861

3.HO

20-29

4,861

2,851

2,010

30-39

5.024

3,o77

1,947

40-49

6,504

3,778

2,726

50-59

8,530

4,79i

3.739

60-69

10,507

5,835

4.672

70-79

11,421

6,132

5.289

80-89

7,49o

3,885

3.605

90-99

i,596

851

•745

100 years and over .

232

163

Age unknown

290

159

131

Number per 1,000,000 population

of same age —

All ages

852

469

383

Under 10 years .

128

10-19 ..

384

183

201

20-29 >.

35i

206

145

30-39 .. • •

478

293

185

40-49 .. • •

845

491

354

5o-59 >. • •

1,655

930

725

60-69 « ■

3,396

1,886

1,510

70-79 .. • •

8,136

4,368

3,768

80-89 „ . .

22,022

11,423

io,599

90-99 „ . .

52,746

28,125

24,621

100 years and over .

66,210

46,518

19,692

Age unknown

1,446

793

653

(founded in 1852), and that of the Freres de Saint Jean de Dieu
(founded in 1875).

The number of the blind in Germany was about 39,000, or 870 per
million in 1885. The number of institutions was 28, nearly all
being educational, with a total of 2139 pupils. All these

Oermaay.

institutions, except two which are supported entirely by

private munificence, are largely assisted by the state, the communes
or the provinces. Seventeen of them derive their entire require-
ments from the state, so that they are quite inde-
pendent of private charity, while the remainder
are only supplemented from public funds so far
as the private contributions fall short of the
expenses.

The following extracts were made from an official
communication from Hofrath Buttner, director of
the institution for the blind in Dresden,
Saxony tQ tne rova | commission, concerning the
system. care anc j SU p erv ; s ; on (pjirsorge) of the
blind after their discharge from the institution : —

" When twenty years of age, the blindare usually
discharged from the institution. Long experience
has taught us that the care and supervision of
the blind after their discharge from the institution
are quite as important as their education and
training in the institution. It would, inouropinion,
be unjust to remove them from their sad surround-
ings, educate and accustom them to higher wants,
and then allow them to sink backward into their
former miserable way of life. After much delibera-
tion it was decided to remain in connexion with the
discharged blind, to visit them in their places of
abode, to learn their wants, to study the difficulties
which they experienced in supporting themselves
independently, and, as far as possible, to remove
their grievances. Director Georgi began this
work in 1843. Director Reinhard continued it
from 1867 to 1879, and the present director has
followed the same path. With the knowledge of
these difficulties the Fiirsorge (care) for discharged
blind steadily advanced, and has won the con-
fidence of the Saxon people. It was decided
that, on the discharge of the blind person, the director should select
a trustworthy person, residing in his future place of abode, to give
him advice and practical help, to protect him from imposition, and
to keep up communication with the director. If this guardian is
unable to advise or help, he then writes to the director, who, if
necessary, comes to the place, and this is all the easier as he travels

rv. 3

free on all railways in Saxony. The result of these visits, as well as all
communications from the guardian, the letters from the blind person,
and every document relating to him, are entered in a register kept
at the institution. These guardians are respectable, benevolent,
practical men, capable of procuring custom for their wards. But
there was no doubt that, in spite of these arrangements, the dis-
charged blind were unable to support themselves without the assist-
ance of capital, whether in money or outfit. The blind man can do
as good work as the man who can see; but as a rule he does not
work so quickly, and if the man who is not blind has to use every
exertion to support himself and his family, the blind man to do
the same requires some special help, without which he will
either not be able to compete, or will have to lead a life of great
privation.

" The first difficulty when a blind pupil is starting in life is to
provide himself with the necessary tools and material. These the
institution supplies to him, and continues through life to afford him
moral and material help ; and by this means the greater part of the
blind are enabled to save money for sickness and old age. Those
who cannot return to their relations cannot at once meet all their
expenses, and the weak and old need special help. A part of the
money for their board and lodging is paid for those who have to be
settled in other places on account of the death or untrustworthiness
of their relatives.

" The fund for the discharged blind is administered by the director
of the institution. The number of those assisted amounts at present
to about 400, who live respectably in all parts of Saxony, are almost
self-supporting, and feel themselves free men. For, just as a son
does not feel galled by a gift from his father, so they are not ashamed
to receive assistance from their second paternal ' home, the
institution."

The number of the blind in Holland, according to the census of the
1st of December 1869, was 1593, or one in every 2247 of the general
population. The Protestants and Roman Catholics were „ ..
about equally balanced. No cognizance was taken of the nouaaa.
blind in the census of 1879. There is only one blind institution,
that of Amsterdam, with 60 pupils, with a preparatory school at
Benuchem (with 20 pupils) and an asylum for adults with 52 inmates
(unmarried). Besides these, there are workshops at Amsterdam,
Rotterdam, the Hague, Utrecht and Middelburg.

According to the census of 1870, there were in Denmark 1249 blind
(577 males and 672 females), or one blind for every 1428 persons.
One institution has been established by government, _
i.e. the Royal Institution for the Blind, at Copenhagen; Uel " nark -
100 children, aged 10 and upwards, are here educated. There is a
preparatory school for blind children under 10 years of age, and an
asylum for blind females, most of whom are former pupils of the
royal school. An association for promoting the self-dependence of
the blind assists not only former pupils of the school but every blind
man or woman willing and able to work.

The number of blind persons in Sweden, according to the census

Table IV. — The Blind, by Consanguinity of Parents, Degree of Blindness, and Blind

Relatives of Other Classes.

Consanguinity of Parents.

Total.

Blind
Brothers,
Sisters or
Ancestors.

Collateral
Relatives

or De-
scendants
alone,
Blind.

No Blind
Relatives
or Rela-
tives by
Marriage
alone,
Blind.

Not
Stated.

All classes —
The blind
Totally blind
Partially blind .

64,763
35,645
29,118

8629
4378
4251

2338
1215
1123

46,759
26,349
20,410

7037
3703
3334

Parents cousins —
The blind

Totally blind . .
Partially blind .

2,527
1,291
1,236

844
435
409

149

78
7i

1,456
739
717

78
39
39

Parents not cousins —
The blind ....
Totally blind . .
Partially blind .

53,98o
29,892

24,088

7395
3720

3675

2095
1090
1005

43,368

24,541
18,827

1 122

54i

58i

Consanguinity of parents
not stated — •
The blind

Totally blind, . .
Partially blind .

8,256
4,462
3,794

390

223
167

47
47

1.935

1,069

866

5837
3123
2714

of December 1880, was 3723, being at the rate of one blind person
for every 1226 of the general population. At the beginning of the
year 1879, the instruction of the blind in Sweden was com-
pletely separated from that of the deaf and dumb, on the weaen.
grounds that it hindered the intellectual development of the blind —
a conclusion which experience shows to be tolerably correct. Since

BLINDNESS

July 1888 the Royal Institution of the Blind has obtained a new
building at Tomteboda, near Stockholm.

The law of the 8th of July 1881, concerning the instruction of
abnormal children, has imposed on the state the duty of establishing
Norway. a sufficient number of schools for the blind in Norway,
as well as for the other abnormal children. All the blind
of the country, from 9 years of age until the age of 21 , are compelled
to be educated, with a maximum of 8 years of instruction for each
pupil.

The census of 1873 showed that in Finland there were 7959 blind
in a total population of about 2,000,000 inhabitants, the proportion
Finland. reaching the very high figure of one for every 251 of the
total population. Nevertheless there were only 160 of
school age. For these there are two institutions, one at Helsingfors,
where the instruction is given in the Swedish language, and where
there are about 12 pupils, and another at Kuopio, where the in-
struction is given in the Finnish language, and where the pupils
number about 30.

According to information received from the I.R. Central Commis-
sion for Statistics, the number of blind in the provinces represented
Austria. m tne Austrian Reichsrath amounted to 15,582 in the year
1884. Of these, 2345 were children up to 15 years of age,
namely 433 below 5, 779 from 5 to 10, and 11 13 from 10 to 15 years.
The total number of institutions for blind children in Austria amounts
to 8. The blind children of school age who are not placed in special
institutions are compulsorily taught in the public general free schools,
as far as practicable. The number of blind in the whole dominion
of the crown of St Stephen was 208,391;

The number of blind persons in Italy was 21,718, according to the

census of 1881, and those of school age were estimated to form 25 %

Italy. ■ °f the whole, or about 5429 in number. But no special

; cognizance of the blind is taken in the government census.

There are 20 institutions, schools and workshops for the blind.

Statistics with regard to the number and condition of the blind
in the Russian empire are of a very limited character, and it is only
Russia. °f l ate y ears that any attempt has been made to draw
up any accurate returns with regard to them. The total
number of the blind throughout the ernpire is generally reckoned at
from 160,000 to 200,000, thus making 1600 to 2000 per million
inhabitants. In Russia there are 21 institutions for the support of
the blind.

"In Egypt the blind are very numerous in comparison with other
countries, and although no exact statistics are at present obtainable
tjgypt on this point, it is computed that the proportion is at
least one totally blind person to every 50 of the population.'
This is principally the result of acute ophthalmia occurring in infancy,
and it is fostered by the superstitious observance which prevents the
mothers from washing their children from the time of birth until'
they are two years old, at which late date only they are weaned.
There is also a great deal of infection carelessly and ignorantly
conveyed direct from eye to eye, by means of unwashed fingers, and
this is accountable for the occurrence of much more eye-disease than
any that may be caused by the' proverbial flies. The only employ-
ment followed by the blind, both Mahommedan and Coptic (or native
Christian), and' that only to a limited extent, is recitation aloud —
the former repeating portions of the Koran at funerals, and the latter
chanting the church-ritual in their services; the blind girls and
women are without occupation. Practically no edupatioh is given
to the blind as a class, and anything which they learn has to be
acquired orally by frequent repetition. The blind were not always
so completely neglected, as the native ecclesiastical authorities
(Wakf) gave an annual grant of £2000 for the continued maintenance
of a school for the blind and the deaf and dumb in Cairo, which taught
about 80 day-pupils; the latter years of the school were passed
under the ministry of education, and it was ultimately discontinued.
Such a condition of affairs appealed to Dr T. R. Armitage, and
explains his motive in trying to establish some proper means for
affording the blind in Egypt the necessary scholastic instruction and
other training. In Egypt, as in other countries, it is occasionally
very difficult, and takes some time, to start any enterprise such as
this on a satisfactory and practical footing, and it was left for
Mrs T. R. Armitage to be the means of successfully carrying out her
husband's wishes in this particular. In 1900 Mrs Armitage asked
Dr Kenneth Scott to prepare a scheme for the education and welfare
of the blind in Egypt, on lines suggested to her. This, through the
British and Foreign Blind Association, was submitted to Queen
Victoria, who graciously commanded it to be sent, through the
foreign office, to the khedive, who in mark of approbation and
encouragement generously gave a handsome donation towards its
realization. The Institution for the Blind was established at
Zeitoun, Cairo, early in the year 1901, through funds provided by
Mrs T. R. Armitage. The object of the institution, which is wholly
unsectarian in character, is to educate and train the blind mentally
and physically and in industrial occupations, and at the same time
to improve their moral standard, so that eventually they may
become in great measure, or even completely, self-supporting.
(Dr Kenneth Scott.)

India has a large proportion of blind inhabitants, ranging from
one in 600 in some provinces, to one in 400 in others, with a total
of more than half a million. Until recently, little had been done in

the way of organized effort to educate them, though many of the
missionaries had helped individual cases. At Amritsar a large and
well-organized work for the blind has been carried on India.

for many years. This school has now been moved to
Rajpur, and helps 70 blind women and children. In 1903 a govern-
ment school and hospital were established at Bombay as a memorial
to Queen Victoria. Reading, writing, arithmetic, tailoring, type-
writing, carpentering, lathe-work and carpet-weaving are taught.
There are small schools at Parantij, Calcutta, Palancottah, Calicut,
Coorg, Chota-Nagpur, and at Moulmein in Burma. The memorial
to Queen Victoria in Ceylon took the form of work for the blind.
J. Knowles, with the help of L. Garthwaite of the Indian Civil
Service, devised a scheme of oriental Braille, which has been adopted
by the British and Foreign Bible Society for the production of the
Scriptures in Eastern languages.

Blindness is very prevalent in China, and to eye-diseases, neglect
and dirt, must be added leprosy and smallpox as causes. Blind
beggars may be seen on every highway, clamouring for china.
alms. A s i n India their pitiful condition attracted the
attention of the v missionaries. W. H. Murray, a Scottish missionary
in Peking, made a simple and ingenious adaptation of the Braille
symbols to the complicated system of Chinese printing, in which over
4000 characters are required.' It was necessary to represent at least
408 sounds, and each one was given a corresponding Braille number.
When a pupil reads the number he knows instantly the sound for
which it stands. A school for the blind was established at Peking,
and the version of the Scriptures printed at Peking can be read in all
the provinces where the Northern Mandarin dialect is spoken(see Miss
Gordon Cumming, The Inventor of the Numeral Type for China).
A Braille code has recently been arranged for Mand.arin, based on a
system of initials and finals, by Miss Garland of tne China Inland
Mission. At Foochow there is a large school for boys and girls in
connexion with the Church Missionary Society. At Ningpo, Amoy,
Canton and Fukien work for the blind is carried on by the
missionaries.

The blind in Japan have long been trained in massage, acupuncture
and music, and until recently, with few exceptions, none but the
blind engaged in these occupations. From three to five Japan
years are required to become proficient in massage, but a
blind person is then able to support himself. In Yokohama, with a
population of half a million, there are 1000 men and women engaged
in massage, and all but about 100 of these are blind. In 1878 a
school for the blind and deaf-mutes was established in Kyoto, and
soon after one in Tokyo. Japan has four schools for the blind, and
seven combined schools for the blind and deaf-mutes.

As in other Eastern countries, blindness is very prevalent in
Palestine. Ophthalmic hospitals and medical attendance are now
available in the larger towns, and the missionary schools pj,jg S ti ae .
have done much to inculcate habits of cleanliness, therefore
there is a slight decrease in the number of the blind. The home
and school for blind girls in Jerusalem is the outcome of a day school
opened in 1896 by an American missionary. There is also a small
school at Urfa under the auspices of the American mission in that town. '

Education

As more sensations are received through the eye than through
any other organ, the mind of a blind child is vacant* and the
training should begin early or the mind will degenerate.
Indirectly the loss of sight results in inaction. If no ^/2w.
one encourages a blind child to move, he will sit .'

quietly in a corner, and when he leaves his seat will move timidly
about. This want of activity produces bad physical effects, and
further delays mental growth. The blind are often injured,
some of them ruined for life, through the ignorance and mistaken
kindness of their friends during early childhood. They should
be taught to walk, to go up and down stairs, to wash, dress and
feed themselves.

They should be carefully taught correct postures and attitudes,
and to avoid making grimaces. They should be told the require-
ments of social conventions which a seeing child learns through
watching his elders. They have no consciousness that their
habits are disagreeable, and the earlier unsightly mannerisms are
corrected the better. It is a fallacy to suppose that the other
senses of the blind are naturally sharper than those of the seeing.
It is only when the senses of hearing and touch have been
cultivated that they partially replace sight, and such cultivation
can begin with very young children.

Blind children have a stronger claim upon the public for
education than other children, because they start at a dis-
advantage in life, they carry a burden in their infirmity, they
come mostly of poor parents, and without special instruction and
training they are almost certain to become a public charge
during life.

BLINDNESS

Public authorities should adopt the most efficient plan for
preparing blind children to become active, independent men
and women, rather than consider the cheapest and easiest
method of educating them. We cannot afford to give the blind
an education that is not the best of its kind in the trade or
profession they will have to follow. There are many seeing
persons with little education who are useful citizens and successful
in various industries, but an uneducated blind person is helpless,
and must become dependent.

The surroundings of the blind do not favour the development
of activity, self-reliance and independence. Parents and friends
find it easier to attend to the wants and requirements of their
blind children than to teach them to be self -helpful in the common
acts of everyday life. A mistaken kindness leads the friends to
guard every movement and prevent physical exertion. As a rule,
the vitality of the blind is much below the average vitality of
seeing persons, and any system of education which does not
recognize and overcome this defect will be a failure. It is the
lack of energy and determination, not the want of sight, that
causes so many failures among the blind.

A practical system of education, which has for its object to
make the blind independent and self-sustaining, must be based

upon a comprehensive course of physical development.
trailing. A blind man who has received mechanical training,

general education, or musical instruction, without
physical development, is like an engine provided with everything
necessary except motive power.

Schools for the blind should be provided with well-equipped
gymnasia, and the physical training should include various kinds
of mass and apparatus work. Large and suitable playgrounds
are also essential. Besides a free space where they can run and
play, it should have a supply of swings, tilts, jumping-boards,
stilts, chars-a-bancs, skittle-alleys, &c. Any game that allows
of sides being taken adds greatly to the enjoyment, and is a
powerful incentive to play. The pupils should be encouraged to
enter into various competitions, as walking, running, jumping,
leap-frog, sack-racing, shot-pitching, tug-of-war, &c. Cycling,
rowing, swimming and roller-skating are not only beneficial but
most enjoyable.

The subjects in the school curriculum should be varied
according to the age and capacity of the pupils, but those

which cultivate the powers of observation and the
training, perceptive faculties should have a first place. Object

lessons or nature study should have a large share of
attention. Few people realize that a blind child knows nothing
of the size, shape and appearance of common objects that lie
beyond the reach of his arm. When he has once been shown how
to learn their characteristics, he will go on acquiring a knowledge
of his surroundings unaided by a teacher. Again, a careful drill
in mental arithmetic, combining accuracy with rapidity, is
essential. A good command of English should be cultivated
by frequent exercises in composition, and by committing to
memory passages of standard prose and poetry. In his secondary
course, the choice of subjects must depend upon his future
career. Above all, stimulate a love of good reading.

From the earliest years manual dexterity should be cultivated
by kindergarten work, modelling, sewing, knitting and sloyd.

Blind children who have not had the advantage of

aI this early handwork find much more difficulty when

training, they begin a regular course in technical training.

Early manual training cultivates the perceptive

faculties, gives activity to the body, and prepares the hands and

fingers for pianoforte-playing, pianoforte-tuning and handicrafts.

Besides a good general education, the blind must have careful

and detailed training in some handicraft, or thorough preparation

for some profession. The trades and professions open
C o ceo to t j lem are £ ew anc j jf t jj e y f a jj j n one f thggg they

Hon. cannot turn quickly to some other line of work. Those

who have charge of their education should avail
themselves of the knowledge that has been gained in all countries,
in order to decide wisely in regard to the trade or occupation
for which each pupil should be prepared. It may be some kind

of handicraft, pianoforte-tuning, school-teaching, or the pro-
fession of music; the talent and ability of each child should be
carefully considered before finally deciding his future occupation,
The failure to give the blind a practical education often means
dependence through life.

Pianoforte-tuning as an employment for the blind originated
in Paris. About 1830 Claud Montal and a blind fellow-pupil
attempted to tune a piano. The seeing tuner in charge
of the school pianos complained to the director, and ^£°"
they were forbidden to touch the works, but the two tuning,
friends procured an old piano and continued their
efforts. Finally, the director, convinced of their skill, gave
them charge of all the school pianos, and classes were soon
started for the other pupils. When Montal left the institution
he encountered great prejudice, but his skill in tuning became
known to the professors of the Conservatoire, and his work
rapidly increased and success was assured. Montal afterwards
established a manufactory, and remained at its head for many
years. Tuning is an excellent employment for the blind, and
one in which they have certain advantages. The seeing who
excel in the business go through a long apprenticeship, and one
must give the blind even more careful preparation. They must
work a number of hours daily, under suitable tuition, for several
years. After a careful examination by an expert pianoforte-
tuning authority, every duly qualified tuner should be furnished
with an official certificate of proficiency, and tuners who cannot
take the required examinations ought not to be allowed to
impose upon the public.

Music in its various branches, when properly taught, is the
best and most lucrative employment for the blind. To become
successful in the profession, it is necessary for the
blind to have opportunities of instruction, practice, training.
study, and hearing music equal to those afforded the
seeing, with whom they will have to compete in the open market.
If the blind musician is to rise above mediocrity, systematic
musical instruction in childhood is indispensable, and good
instruction will avail little unless the practice is under constant
and judicious supervision. The musical instruction, in its
several branches of harmony, pianoforte, organ and vocal
culture, must be addressed to the mind, not merely to the ear.
This is the only possible method by which musical training
can be made of practical .use to the blind. The blind music
teacher or organist must have a well-disciplined mind, capable
of analysing and dealing with music from an intellectual point
of view. If the mental faculties have not been developed and
thoroughly disciplined, the blind musician, however well he may
play or sing, will be a failure as a teacher. The musical in-
struction must be more thorough, more analytical, more com-
prehensive, than corresponding instruction given to seeing
persons. In 187 1 Dr Armitage published a book on the
education and employment of the blind, in which he stated that
of the blind musicians trained in the United Kingdom not more
than one-half per cent were able to support themselves, whereas
of those trained in the Paris school $0 % supported themselves
fully, and 30 % partially, by the profession of music.

To provide a better education and improve the musical
training of the blind, the Royal Normal College was established
in 1872. 1 Its object was to afford the young blind
a thorough general and musical education, to qualify ^ oyaI .
them to earn a living by various intellectual pursuits, College.
especially as organists, pianists, teachers and piano-
forte-tuners. From the first, the founders of the college main-
tained that the blind could only be made self-sustaining by
increasing their intelligence, bodily activity and dexterity,
by inculcating business habits, by arousing their self-respect,
and by creating in their minds a belief in the possibility

1 Its principal (responsible, with Dr Armitage, the duke of West-
minster and others, for its foundation) was Sir F. J. Campbell,
LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.S.A., himself a blind man, who, born in Tennes-
see, U.S.A., in 1832, and educated at the Nashville school, and after-
wards in music at Leipzig and Berlin, had from 1858 to 1869 been
associated with Dr Howe at the Perkins Institution, Boston. He
was knighted in 1909.

BLINDNESS

of future self-maintenance. A kindergarten department was
opened in 1881. In July 1896 Queen's Scholarship examina-
tions were held at the Royal Normal College, for the first time,
for blind students, and the institution recognized by the Educa-
tion Department as a training college for blind school-teachers.

From the first day a pupil enters school until he finishes his
course of training, care must be taken to implant business habits.
Blind children are allowed to be idle and helpless at
tioaal home; they do not learn to appreciate the value of
needs. time, and in after years this is one of the most difficult
lessons to inculcate. Having drifted through child-
hood, they are content to drift through life. The important
habits of punctuality, regularity and precision should be culti-
vated in all the arrangements and requirements. A great effort
should be made to lift the blind from pauperism. As soon as
pupils enter a school, all semblance of pauper origin should be
removed. They must be inspired with a desire for independence
and a belief in its possibility. In the public mind blindness has
been so long and closely associated with dependence and pauper-
ism that schools for the blind, even the most progressive, have
been regarded hitherto as asylums rather than educational
establishments. A sad mistake in the training of the blind is
the lack of an earnest effort to improve their social condition.
The fact that their education has been left to charity has helped
to keep them in the ranks of dependents.

The question of day-classes versus boarding-schools has been
much discussed. It is claimed by some that a blind child gains
more independence if kept at home and educated in a school
with the seeing. This theory is not verified by practical ex-
perience. At home its blindness makes the child an exception,
and often it takes little or no part in the active duties of every-
day life. Again, in a class of seeing children the blind member
is treated as an exception. The memory is cultivated at the
expense of the other faculties, and the facility with which it
recites in certain subjects causes it to make a false estimate
of its attainments. The fundamental principles in different
branches are imperfectly understood, from the failure to follow
the illustrations of the teacher. In the playgrounds, a few
irrepressibles join in active games, but most of the blind children
prefer a quiet corner.

For the sake of economy, schools for deaf-mutes and the
blind are sometimes united. As the requirements of the two
classes are entirely separate and distinct, the union is undesirable,
whether for general education or industrial training. The plan
was tried in America, but has been given up in most of the
states. To meet the difficulty of proper classification with small
numbers, blind boys and girls are taught in the same classes.
The acquaintances then made lead to intimacy in later years
and foster intermarriage among the blind. Intermarriage among
the blind is a calamity, both for them and for their children;
some who might have been successful business men are to-day
begging in the streets in consequence of intermarriage.

In every school or class there will be a certain number of
young blind children who, from neglect, want of food, or other
causes, are feeble in body and defective in intellect; such
children are a great burden in any class or school, and require
special treatment and instruction. Educational authorities
should unite and have one or two schools in a healthful locality
for mentally defective blind children.

More and more, in educational work for the seeing, there is
a tendency to specialize, and thus enable each student to have
the best possible instruction in the subjects that bear most
directly on his future calling. To prepare the blind for self-
maintenance, there should be an equally careful study of the
ability of each child.

A scheme of education which has for its object to make
the blind a self-sustaining class should include: kindergarten
schools for children from 5 to 8 years of age; preparatory
schools from 8 to n; intermediate schools from n to 14. At
14 an intelligent opinion can be formed in regard to the future
career of the pupils. They will fall naturally into the follow-
ing categories: — (a) A certain number will succeed better in

handicraft than in any other calling, and should be drafted into a
suitable mechanical school. (6) A few will have special gifts for
general business, and should be educated accordingly, (c) A
few will have the ability and ambition to prepare for the
university, and the special college should afford them the most
thorough preparation for the university examinations, (d)
Some will have the necessary talent, combined with the requisite
character and industry, to succeed in the musical profession;
in addition to a liberal education, these should have musical
instruction, equal to that given to the seeing, in the best
schools of music, (e) Some may achieve excellent success as
pianoforte-tuners, and in a pianoforte-tuning school strict
business habits should be cultivated, and the same attention
to work required as is demanded of seeing workmen in well-
regulated pianoforte factories.

The United Kingdom stands almost alone in allowing the
education of the blind to depend upon charity. In the United
States, each state government not only makes liberal provision
for the education and training of the blind, but most of them
provide grounds, buildings and a complete equipment in all de-
partments. Although it costs much more per capita, from £40 to
£60 per annum, the blind are as amply provided with the means
of education as the seeing. The government of the United
States appropriates $10,000 per annum for printing embossed
books for the blind. Most of the European countries and the
English colonies provide by taxation for the education of the blind.

Types

The earliest authentic records of tangible letters for the blind
describe a plan of engraving the letters upon blocks of wood, the
invention of Francesco Lucas, a Spaniard, who dedicated it to
Philip II. of Spain in the 16th century. In 1640 Pierre Moreau,
a writing-master in Paris, cast a movable leaden type for the use
of the blind, but being without means to carry out his plan,
abandoned it. Pins inserted in cushions were next tried, and
large wooden letters. After these came a contrivance of Du
Puiseaux, a blind man, who had metal letters cast and set them
in a small frame with a handle. Whilst these experiments were
going on in France, attempts had also been made in Germany.
R. Weissembourg (a resident of Mannheim), who lost his sight
when about seven years of age, made use of letters cut in card-
board, and afterwards pricked maps in the same material. By
this method he taught Mile Paradis, the talented blind musician
and the friend of Valentin Haiiy.

To Haiiy belongs the honour of being the first to emboss paper
as a means of reading for the blind; his books were embossed in
large and small italics, from movable type set by his pupils. The
following is an account of the origin of his discovery. Haiiy's
first pupil was Francois Lesueur, a blind boy whom he found
begging at the porch door of St Germain des Pres. While
Lesueur was sorting the papers on his teacher's desk, he came
across a card strongly indented by the types in the press. The
blind lad showed his master he could decipher several letters on
the card. Immediately Haiiy traced with the handle of his pen
some signs on paper. The boy read them, and the result was
printing in relief, the greatest of Haiiy's discoveries. In 1821
Lady Elizabeth Lowther brought embossed books and types from
Paris, and with the types her son, Sir Charles Lowther, Bart.,
printed for his own use the Gospel of St Matthew. The work of
Haiiy was taken up by Mr Gall of Edinburgh, Mr Alston of
Glasgow, Dr Howe of Boston, Mr Friedlander of Philadelphia,
and others. In 1827 James Gall of Edinburgh embossed some
elementary works, and published the Gospel of St John in 1834.
His plan was to use the common English letter and replace
curves by angles.

In 1832 the Edinburgh Society of Arts offered a gold medal for
the best method of printing for the blind, and it was awarded to
Dr Edmond Fry of London, whose alphabet consisted of ordinary
capital letters without their small strokes. In 1836 the Rev. W.
Taylor of York and John Alston in Glasgow began to print with
Fry's type. Mr Alston's appeal for a printing fund met with a
hearty response, and a grant of £400 was made by the treasury;

BLINDNESS

in 1838 he completed the New Testament, and at the end of 1840
the whole Bible was published in embossed print. In 1833
printing for the blind was commenced in the United States at
Boston and Philadelphia. Dr S. G. Howe in Boston used small
English letters without capitals, angles being employed instead
of curves, while J. R. Friedlander in Philadelphia used only

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Roman capitals. About 1838 T. M. Lucas of Bristol, a shorthand
writer, and J. H. Frere of Blackheath, each introduced an
alphabet of simpler forms, and based their systems on steno-
graphy. In 1847 Dr Moon of Brighton brought out a system
which partially retains the outline of the Roman letters. This
type is easily read by the adult blind, and is still much used by
the home teaching societies. The preceding methods are all
known as line types, but the one which is now in general use is a
point type.

In the early part of the 19th century Captain Charles Barbier,

right-hand row in which vertical line, of the printed table the
speech sound is to be found.

Louis Braille, a pupil and afterwards a professor of the Institu-
tion Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, Paris, studied all the various
methods in which arbitrary characters were used. Barbier's
letter, although it gave a large number of combinations, was too
long to be covered by the finger in reading, and Louis Braille
reduced the number of dots. In 1834 Braille perfected his
system. Dr Armitage considered it was the greatest advance
that had ever been made in the education of the blind.

The Braille alphabet consists of varying combinations of six
dots in an oblong, of which the vertical side contains three, and the

horizontal two dots

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Apparatus for writing Braille.

a French officer, substituted embossed dots for embossed lines.
The slate for writing was also invented by him.

Barbier arranged a table of speech sounds, consisting of six
lines with six sounds in each line. His rectangular cell contained
two vertical rows of six points each. The number of points in the
left-hand row indicates in which horizontal line, and that in the

There are 63 possible combinations

of these six dots, and after the letters of the alphabet have been
supplied, the remaining signs are used for punctuation, con-
tractions, &c.

" For writing, a ruler is used, consisting of a metal bed either
grooved or marked by groups of little pits, each group consisting of
six; over this bed is fitted a brass guide, punched with oblong
holes whose vertical diameter is three-tenths of an inch, while the
horizontal diameter is two-tenths. The pits are arranged in two
parallel lines, and the guide is hinged on the bed in such a way that
when the two are locked together the openings in the guide corre-
spond exactly to the pits in the bed. The brass guide has a double
row of openings, which enables the writer to write two lines; when
these are written, he shifts his guide downwards until two little pins,
which project from the under surface at its ends, drop into corre-
sponding holes of a wooden board ; then two more lines are written,
and this operation is repeated until the bottom of the page is reached.
The paper is introduced between the frame and the metal bed. The
instrument for writing is a blunt awl, which carries a little cap of
paper before it into the grooves or pits of the bed, thereby producing
a series of little pits in the paper on the side next the writer. When
taken out and turned over, little prominences are felt, corresponding
to the pits on the other side. The reading is performed from left to
right, consequently the writing is from right to left ; but this reversal
presents no practical difficulty as soon as the pupil had caught the
idea that in reading and writing alike he has to go forwards.

" The first ten letters, from ' a ' to ' j,' are formed in the upper
and middle grooves; the next ten, from ' k ' to ' t,' are formed by
adding one lower back dot to each letter of the first series ; the third
row is formed from the first by adding two lower dots to each letter;
the fourth row, similarly, by adding one lower front dot.

" The first ten letters, when preceded by the prefix for numbers,

stand for the nine
numbers and the
cipher. The same
signs, written in the
lower and middle
grooves, instead of
the tipperand middle,
serve for punctua-
tion. The seven last
letters of each series
stand for the seven
musical notes — the
first series represent-
ing quavers, the
second minims, the
third semibreves, the
fourth crotchets.

Rests, accidentals,
and every other sign
used in music can be
readily and clearly
expressed without
having recourse to
the staff of five lines
which forms the basis
of ordinary musical
notation, and which,
though it has been
reproduced for the
blind, can only be
considered as serv-
ing to give them an
idea of the method employed by the seeing, and cannot, of course, be
written. By means of this dotted system, a blind man is able to
keep memoranda or accounts, write his own music, emboss his own
books from dictation, and carry on correspondence/'

The Braille system for literature and music was brought into
general use in England by Dr T. R. Armitage. Through his wise,

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Braille Alphabet. The black dots represent the raised points of
the sign in their position in relation to the group of six.

Fig. 2.

BLINDNESS

untiring zeal and noble generosity, every blind man, woman and
child throughout the English-speaking world can now obtain
not only the best literature, but the best music.

In America there are two modifications of the point type,
known as New York point and American braille. In each of
these the most frequently recurring letters are represented by
the least number of dots.

The original Braille is used by the institutions for the blind in
the British empire, European countries, Mexico, Brazil and
Egypt.

Appliances for Educational Work

The apparatus for writing point alphabets has already been
described. Frank H. Hall, former superintendent of the School
for the Blind, Jacksonville, 111., U.S.A., has invented a Braille
typewriter and stereotype maker; the latter embosses metal plates
from which any number of copies can be printed. An automatic
Braille-writer has been brought out in Germany, and William
B. Wait (principal of the Institution for the Blind in New York
City) has invented a machine for writing New York point. These
machines are expensive, but A. Wayne of Birmingham has brought

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Fig. 3. — Arithmetic Board, Pin and Characters. A, Shape of
opening in the board for pin; B and C, pin.

out a cheap and effective Braille- writer. H. Stainsby, secretary of
the Birmingham institution, and Wayne have invented a machine
for writing Braille shorthand.

Many boards have been constructed to enable the blind to
work arithmetical problems. The one which is most used was
invented by the Rev. W. Taylor. The board has star-shaped
openings in which a square pin fits in eight different positions.
The pin has on one end a plain ridge and on the other a notched
ridge; sixteen characters can be formed with the two ends.
The board is also used for algebra, another set of type furnishing
the algebraic symbols.

Books are prepared with raised geometrical diagrams; figures
can be formed with bent wires on cushions, or on paper with a
toothed wheel attached to one end of a pair of compasses.

Geography is studied by means of relief maps, manufactured
in wood or paper. The physical maps and globes prepared for
seeing children are used also for the blind.

Chiefly owing to the unremitting energy and liberality of
Dr T. R. Armitage, in connexion with the British and Foreign
Blind Association, all school appliances for the blind have been
greatly improved and cheapened.

Employment

Reference has been made to the fact that music in its various
branches furnishes the best and most lucrative employment for
the blind. But those who have not the ability, or are too old
to be trained for music or some other profession, must depend
upon handicrafts for their support. The principal ones taught
in the various institutions are the making of baskets, brushes,
mats, sacks, ships' fenders, brooms and mattresses, upholstery,
wire-work, chair-caning, wood-chopping, &c. Females are
taught to make fancy baskets and brushes, chair-caning, knitting,
netting, weaving, sewing — hand and machine — crocheting, &c.
It is difficult to find employment for blind girls. It is hoped
that typewriting and massage will prove remunerative.

The blind, whether educated for the church, trained as teachers,
musicians, pianoforte-tuners, or for any other trade or occupation,
generally require assistance at the outset. They need help in
finding suitable employment, recommendations for establishing
a connexion, pecuniary assistance in providing outfits of books,
tools, instruments,. &c, help in the selection and purchase of the
best materials at the lowest wholesale rates, in the sale of their
manufactured goods in the best markets, and if overtaken by
reverses, judicious and timely help towards a fresh start. Every
institution should keep in touch with its old pupils. The super-
intendent who carefully studies the successes and failures of his
pupils when they go into the world, will more wisely direct the
work and energies of his present and future students.

Within recent years great improvements have been made in
some of the progressive workshops for the blind. At the con-
ference in London in 1902 Mr T. Stoddart gave the following
information in regard to the work in Glasgow: — " We are build-
ing very extensive additions to our workshops, which will enable
us to accommodate 600 blind people. We mean to employ the
most up-to-date methods, and are introducing electric power
to drive the machinery and light the workshops. We have to do
with the average blind adult recently deprived of sight after he
has attained an age of from 2 5 to 40 or even 50 years. In Glasgow
we have developed an industry eminently suitable for the
employment of the blind, namely, the manufacture of new and
the remaking of old bedding. There are industries which are
purely local, where certain articles of manufacture largely used
in one district are useless, or nearly so, in another; but the field
in which this industry may be promoted is practically without
limit. It is perhaps the employment par excellence for the blind,
and among other advantages it has the following to recommend
it: employment 1 is provided for the blind of both sexes and of
all ages; there is no accumulation nor deterioration of stock;
it yields an excellent profit, and its use is universal. We have
been pushing this industry for years, our annual turnover in
this particular department having exceeded £7000, and as we
find it so suited to the capabilities of all grades of blind people,
it is our intention to provide facilities for doing a turnover of
three times that amount. Instead of the thirty sewing-machines
which we have at present running by power, we hope to employ
100 blind women. At cork-fender-making, also an industry of
the most suitable kind, we are at present employing about
thirty workers. It is also our intention to greatly develop and
extend our mat -making department."

In the United States many blind persons are engaged in
agricultural pursuits, and some are very successful in com-
mercial pursuits. When a man loses his sight in adult life,
if he can possibly follow the business in which he has previously
been engaged, it is the best course for him. In the present day,
work in manufactories is subdivided to such an extent that often
some one portion can be done by a blind person; but it needs
the interest of some enthusiastic believer in the capabilities of
the blind to persuade the seeing manager that blind people can
be safely employed in factories.

In England, at the time of the royal commission of 1889,
upwards of 8000 blind persons, above the age of 21, were in
receipt of relief from the guardians, of whom no less than 3278
were resident in workhouses or workhouse infirmaries. The

BLINDNESS

census returns for 1901 indicate that the number at that time
was equally large. It would certainly be more economical to
establish workshops where the able-bodied adult blind can
be trained in some handicraft and employed.

The papers read at the various conferences show that, even
under the most favourable circumstances, some are not able
to earn enough for their support; nevertheless, employment
improves their condition; there is no greater calamity than
to live a life of compulsory idleness in total darkness. The cry
of the blind is not alms but work. One of the workshops
in western America has adopted the motto, " Independence
through Industry," and it should be the aim of every civilized
country to hasten the time when blindness and pauperism shall
no longer be synonymous terms.

Biography
It may be interesting, in conclusion, to mention some of the
names of prominent blind people in history: —

Timoleon (c. 410-336 B.C.), a Greek general.

Aufidius, a Roman senator.

Bela II. (d. 1141), king of Hungary.

John, king of Bohemia (1296-1346), killed in the battle of Crecy.

John Zizca (c. 1376-1424), Bohemian general.

Basil III. (d. 1462), prince of Moscow.

Shah Alam (d. 1806), the last of the Great Moguls.

Diodorus, the instructor of Cicero.

Didymus of Alexandria (c. 308-395), mathematician, theo-
logian and linguist.

Nicase of Malines (d. 1492), professor of law in the university
of Cologne. The degree of doctor of divinity was conferred
on him by the university of Louvain, and the pope granted
a dispensation suspending the law of the Church, that he
might be ordained as a priest.

Ludovico Scapinelli (b. 1585), professor at the universities of
Bologna, Modena and Pisa.

James Schegkius (d. 1587), professor of philosophy and medicine
at Tubingen.

Franciscus Salinas, professor of music at the university of
Salamanca, in the 16th century. -

Nicholas Bacon (16th century), doctor of laws in the university
of Brussels.

Count de Pagan of Avignon (b. 1604), mathematician of note.

John Milton (1608-1674), the poet.

Rev. Richard Lucas (1648-1715), prebendary of Westminster.

Nicholas Saunderson (q.v.; 1682-1739).

John Stanley (1713-1786), Mus. Bac. Oxon., was born in London
in 1713. At seven he began to study music, and made such
rapid progress that he was appointed organist of All-Hallows,
Bread Street, at the age of eleven. He graduated as Mus.
Bac. at Oxford when sixteen, and was organist of the
Temple church at the age of twenty-one. He composed a
number of cantatas, and after the death of Handel he
superintended the performance of Handel's oratorios at
Covent Garden. He received the degree of doctor of
music, and was master of the king's band.

Leonard Euler (1707-17S3), -the celebrated mathematician and
astronomer.

■John Metcalf (b. 1717), road-builder and contractor.

Sir John Fielding (d. 1780), eminent lawyer and magistrate.

Thomas Blacklock (q.v. ; 1721-1791), Scottish scholar and poet.

Francois Huber (1 750-1831), Swiss naturalist, noted for his
observations on bees.

Edward Rushton (b. 1756). At six years of age he entered the
Liverpool free grammar school, and at eleven shipped for
his first voyage in a West India merchantman. On a later
voyage he was shipwrecked, and owed his life to the self-
sacrifice of a negro. Rushton and the black man swam for
their lives to a floating cask; the negro reached it first,
saw Rushton about to sink, pushed the cask to the failing
lad, and struck out for the shore, but never reached it.
This incident made Rushton an enthusiastic champion
through life of the cause of the negro. During a voyage to
Dominica malignant ophthalmia broke out among the slave
cargo, and Rushton caught the disease by attending them
in the hold when all others refused help. This attack
deprived him of sight, and cut short a promising nautical
career at the age of nineteen. He struggled bravely against
difficulties, and besides entering successfully into various
literary engagements, maintained himself and family as a
bookseller. A volume of his poems containing a memoir
was published in 1824.

Marie Therese von Paradis (b. 1759), the daughter of an imperial
councillor in Vienna. She was a godchild of the empress
Marie Therese, and as her parents possessed rank and
wealth, no expense was spared in her education. Weissem-

bourg, a blind man, was her tutor, and she learned to spell
with letters cut out of pasteboard, and read words pricked
upon cards with pins. She studied the piano with Richter
(of Holland) and Kozeluch. She was a highly esteemed
pianist, and Mozart wrote a concerto for her; she ako
attained considerable skill on the organ, in singing and in
composition. She made a concert tour of Europe, visiting
the principal courts and everywhere achieving great success.
She remained four months in England, under the patronage
of the queen. On her return to Vienna, through Paris, she
met Valentin Hatiy. Towards the close of her life she
devoted herself to teaching singing and the pianoforte with
great success.
James Holman {q.v.; 1786-1857), traveller.
William H. Prescott {q.v. ; 1796-1859), the American historian.
Several early 19th-century musicians held situations as organ-
ists in London ; among them Grenville, Scott, Lockhart,
Mather, Stiles and Warne.
Louis Braille (1809-1852). In 1819 he went to the school fo.
the blind in Paris. He became proficient on the organ, and
held a post in one of the Paris churches. While a professor
at the Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, he
perfected his system of point writing.
Alexander Rodenbach, Belgian statesman. When a member of
the chamber of deputies, in 1836, he introduced and
succeeded in establishing by law the right of blind and
deaf-mute children to an education.
Dr William Moon (1818-1894), the inventor of the type for the

blind which bears his name.
Rev. W. H. Milburn, D.D. (1823-1903), the American chaplain,
known in the United States as " The Blind Man Eloquent."
He often travelled from thirty to fifty thousand miles a
year, speaking and preaching every day. He was three
times chaplain of the House of Representatives, and in 1893
was chosen to the chaplaincy of the senate.
Dr T. R. Armitage (b. 1824). After spending his youth on the
continent, he became a medical student, first at King's
College, and afterwards at Paris and Vienna. His career
promised to be a brilliant one, but at the age of thirty-six
failing sight caused him to abandon his profession. For
the rest of his life he devoted his time and fortune to the
interests of the blind. He reorganized the Indigent Blind
Visiting Society, endowed its Samaritan fund, founded the
British and Foreign Blind Association, and, in conjunction
with the late duke of Westminster and others, founded the
Royal Normal College.
Elizabeth Gilbert _(b. 1826), daughter of the bishop of Chichester.
She lost her sight at the age of three. She was educated at
home, and took her full share of household duties and cares
and pleasures. When she was twenty-seven, she began to
consider the condition of the poor blind of London. She
saw some one must befriend those who had been taught
trades, some one who could supply material, give employ-
ment or dispose of the articles manufactured. In 1854 her
scheme was started, and work was given to six men in their
own homes, but the number soon increased. In 1856 a
committee was formed, a house converted into a factory,
and the Association for Promoting the General Welfare of
the Blind was founded.
Rev. George Matheson, D.D. (b. 1842), preacher and writer of
the Church of Scotland. The degree of D.D. was conferred
on him by the university of Edinburgh in 1879, and he was
appointed Baird Lecturer in 1881, and St Giles' Lecturer
in 1882.
Henry Fawcett (1833-1884), professor of political economy at

Cambridge, and postmaster-general.
W. H. Churchman of Pennsylvania, who was instrumental in
establishing the schools for the blind in Tennessee, Indiana
and Wisconsin.
H. L. Hall, founder of the workshops and home for the blind
in Philadelphia; by his energetic management he raised
the standard of work for the adult blind throughout
America.
Bibliography. — See also W. H. Levy, Blindness and the Blind
(1872) ; J. Wilson, Biography of the Blind (1838) ; Dr T. R. Armitage,
Education and Employment of the Blind (2nd ed., 1882); R. H. Blair,
Education of the Blind (1868) ; M. Anagnos, Education of the Blind
(1882); H. J. Wilson, Institutions, Societies and Classes for the Blind
in England and Wales (1907); Guillie, Instruction and Amusements
of the Blind (1819); Dr W. Moon, Light for the Blind (1875); R-
Meldrum, Light on Dark Paths (2nd ed., 1891) ; Dr H. Roth, Preven-
tion of Blindness (1885), and his Physical Education of the Blind
(1885); Report of Royal Commission (1889); Gavin Douglas,
Remarkable Blind Persons (1829); John Bird, Social Pathology
(1862); M. de la Sizeranne, The Blind in Useful Avocations (Paris,
1881), True Mission of Smaller Schools (Paris, 1884), The Blind in
France (Paris, 1885), Two Years' Study and Work for the Blind
(Paris, 1890), and The Blind as seen by a Blind Man [translated
by Dr Park Lewis] (Paris, 1893); Dr Emile Javal, The Blind

BLISS— BLOCKADE

Man's World [translated by Ernest Thomson] (Paris, 1904) ;
Prof. A. Mell, Encyklopddisches Handbuch des Blindenwesens
(Vienna, 1899). (F. J. C.)

BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833- ), American mer-
chant and politician, was born at Fall River, Massachusetts, on
the 26th of January 1833. He was educated in his native city
and in New Orleans, where he early entered his step-father's
counting-house. Returning to Massachusetts in 1849, he
became a clerk and subsequently a junior partner in a prominent
Boston commercial house. Later he removed to New York
City to establish a branch of the firm. In 1881 he organized
and became president of Bliss, Fabyan & Company, one of the
largest wholesale dry -goods houses in the country. A consistent
advocate of the protective tariff, he was one of the organizers,
and for many years president, of the American Protective
Tariff League. In politics an active Republican, he was chair-
man of the Republican state committee in 1887 and 1888, and
contributed much to the success of the Harrison ticket in New
York in the latter year. He was treasurer of the Republican
national committee from 1892 to 1904, and was secretary of the
interior in President McKinley's cabinet from 1897 to 1899.

BLISTER (a word found in many forms in Teutonic languages,
cf. Ger. Blase; it is ultimately connected with the same root as
in "blow," cf. "bladder"), a small vesicle filled with serous
fluid raised on the skin by a burn, by rubbing on a hard surface,
as on the hand in rowing, or by other injury; the term is also
used of a similar condition of the skin caused artificially, as a
counter-irritant in cases of inflammation, by the application of
mustard, of various kinds of fly (see Canthaeides) and of
other vesicatories. Similar small swellings, filled with fluid or
air, on plants and on the surface of steel or paint, &c, are also
called" blisters."

BLIZZARD (origin probably onomatopoeic, cf. " blast,"
"bluster"), a furious wind driving fine particles of choking,
blinding snow whirling in icy clouds. The conditions to which
the name was originally given occur with the northerly winds
in rear of the cyclones crossing the eastern states of America
during winter.

BLOCH, MARK ELIEZER (c. 17 23-1 799), German naturalist,
was born at Ansbach, of poor Jewish parents, about 1723. After
taking his degree as doctor at Frankfort-on-Oder he established
himself as a physician at Berlin. His first scientific work of
importance was an essay on intestinal worms, which gained a
prize from the Academy of Copenhagen, but he is best known
by his important work on fishes (see Ichthyology). Bloch
was fifty-six when he began to write on ichthyological subjects.
To begin at his time of life a work in which he intended not
only to give full descriptions of the species known to him from
specimens or drawings, but also to illustrate each species in a
style truly magnificent for his time, was an undertaking the
execution of which most men would have despaired of. Yet he
accomplished not only this task, but even more than he at first
contemplated. He died at Carlsbad on the 6th of August 1799.

BLOCK, MAURICE (1816-1901), French statistician, was
born in Berlin of Jewish parents on the 18th of February 1816.
He studied at Bonn and Giessen, but settled in Paris, becoming
naturalized there. In 1844 he entered the French ministry of
agriculture, becoming in 1852 one of the heads of the statistical
department. He retired in 1862, and thenceforth devoted him-
self entirely to statistical studies, which have gained for him
a wide reputation. He was elected a member of the Academie
des Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1880. He died in Paris on
the gth of January 1901. His principal works are: Dictionnaire
de I' administration franqaise (1856); Statistique de la France
(i860); Dictionnaire general de la politique (1862); L' Europe
politique et sociale (1869); Traile theorique et pratique de statis-
tique (1878); Les Progres de I'lconomie politique depuis Adam
Smith (1890); he also edited from 1856 L' Annuaire de Veconomie
politique et de la statistique, and wrote in German Die Bevolke-
rung des franzosischen Kaiserreichs (1861); Die Bevolkerung
Spaniens und Portugals (1861); and Die Machtstellung der
europdischen Staaten (1862).

BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old
Ger. Block, obstruction, cf . " baulk ") , a piece of wood. The word
is used in various senses, e.g. the block upon which people were
beheaded, the block or mould upon which a hat is shaped, a
pulley-block, a printing-block, &c. From the sense of a solid
mass comes the expression, a "block" of houses, i.e. a rect-
angular space covered with houses and bounded by four streets.
From the sense of "obstruction" comes a "block" in traffic, a
block in any proceedings, and the block system of signalling on
railways.

BLOCKADE (Fr. blocus, Ger. Blokade), a term used in
maritime warfare. Originally a blockade by sea was probably
nothing more than the equivalent in maritime warfare of a
blockade or siege on land in which the army investing the
blockaded or besieged place is in actual physical possession of a
zone through which it can prevent and forbid ingress and egress.
An attempt to cross such a zone without the consent of the
investing army would be an act of hostility against the besiegers.
A maritime blockade, when it formed part of a siege, would
obviously also be a close blockade, being part of the military
cordon drawn round the besieged place. Even from the first,
however, differences would begin to grow up in the conditions
arising out of the operations on land and on sea. Thus whereas
conveying merchandise across military lines would be a deliberate
act of hostility against the investing force, a neutral ship which
had sailed in ignorance of the blockade for the blockaded place
might in good faith cross the blockade line without committing
a hostile act against the investing force. With the development
of recognition of neutral rights the involuntary character of the
breach would be taken into account, and notice to neutral states
and to approaching vessels would come into use. With the
employment in warfare of larger vessels in the place of the more
numerous small ones of an earlier age, notice, moreover, would
tend to take the place of de facto investment, and at a time when
communication between governments was still slow and pre-
carious, such notice would sometimes be given as a possible
measure of belligerent tactics before the blockade could be
actually carried out. Out of these circumstances grew up the
abuse of "paper blockades."

The climax was reached in the " Continental Blockade "
decreed by Napoleon in 1806, which continued till it was abolished
by international agreement in 181 2. This blockade forbade all
countries under French dominion or allied with France to have
any communication with Great Britain. Great Britain replied
in 1807 by a similar measure. The first nation to protest against
these fictitious blockades was the United States. Already in
1800 John Marshall, secretary of state, wrote to the American
minister in Great Britain pointing out objections which have
since been universally admitted. In the following interesting
passage he said: —

" Ports not effectually blockaded by a force capable of completely
investing them have yet been declared in a state of blockade. . . .
If the effectiveness of the blockade be dispensed with, then every port
of the belligerent powers mayat all times be declared in that state,
and the commerce of neutrals be thereby subjected to universal
capture. But if this principle be strictly adhered to, the capacity
to blockade will be limited by the naval force of the belligerent, and,
in consequence, the mischief to neutral commerce cannot be very
extensive.^ It is, therefore, of the last importance to neutrals that
this principle be maintained unimpaired. I observe that you have
pressed this reasoning on the British minister, who replies that an
occasional absence of a fleet from a blockaded port ought not to
change the state of the place. Whatever force this observation may
be entitled to, where that occasional absence has been produced by
an accident, as a storm, which for a moment blows off a fleet and
forces it from its station, which station it immediately resumes, I
am persuaded that where a part of the fleet is applied, though only
for a time, to other objects or comes into port, the very principle
requiring an effective blockade, which is that the mischief can only be
coextensive with the naval force of the belligerent, requires that
during such temporary absence the commerce to the neutrals to the
place should be free." 1

1 John Marshall, secretary of state, to Rufus King, minister to
England, 20th of September 1800, Am. State Papers, Class I, For. Rel.
II, No. 181, J. B. Moore, Digest of International Law, vii. 788.

BLOCKADE

Again in 1803 James Madison wrote to the then American
minister in London : —

" The law of nations requires to constitute a blockade that there
should be the presence and position of a force rendering access to
the prohibited place manifestly difficult and dangerous." '

In 1826 and 1827 Great Britain as well as the United States
asserted that blockades in order to be binding must be effective.
This became gradually the recognized view, and when in 1856
the powers represented at the congress of Paris inserted in the
declaration there adopted that " blockades in order to be
binding must be effective, that is to say, maintained by a force
sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of an enemy," they
were merely enunciating a rule which neutral states had already
become too powerful to allow belligerents to disregard.

Blockade is universally admitted to be a belligerent right to
which under international law neutrals are obliged to submit. It
is now also universally admitted that the above-quoted rule of
the Declaration of Paris forms part of international law, in-
dependently of the declaration. Being, however, exclusively a
belligerent right, it cannot be exercised except by a belligerent
force. Even a de facto belligerent has the right to institute a
blockade binding on neutrals if it has the means of making it
effective, though the force opposed to it may treat the de facto
belligerent as rebels.

It is also admitted that, being exclusively a belligerent right,
it cannot be exercised in time of peace, but there has been some
inconsistency in practice (see Pacific Blockade) which will
probably lead governments, in order to avoid protests of neutral
powers against belligerent rights being exercised in mere coercive
proceedings, to exercise all the rights of belligerents and carry on
de facto war to entitle them to use violence against neutral in-
fringers. This was done in the case of the blockade of Venezuela
by Great Britain, Germany and Italy in 1 902-1903.

The points upon which controversy still arises are as to what
constitutes an " effective " blockade and what a sufficient
notice of blockade to warrant the penalties of violation, viz.
confiscation of the ship and of the cargo unless the evidence
demonstrates the innocence of the cargo owners. A blockade
to be effective must be maintained by a sufficient force to
prevent the entrance of neutral vessels into the blockaded port
or ports, and it must be duly proclaimed. Subject to these
principles being complied with, " the question of the legitimacy
and effectiveness of a blockade is one of fact to be determined in
each case upon the evidence presented " (Thomas F. Bayard,
American secretary of state, to Messrs Kamer & Co., 19th of
February 1889). The British manual of naval prize law sums
up the cases in which a blockade, validly instituted, ceases to be
effectively maintained, as follows: — (1) If the blockading force
abandons its position, unless the abandonment be merely
temporary or caused by stress of weather, or (2) if it be driven
away by the enemy, or (3) if it be negligent in its duties, or
(4) if it be partial in the execution of its duties towards one ship
rather than another, or towards the ships of one nation rather
than those of another. These cases, however, are based on
decisions of the British admiralty court and cannot be relied on
absolutely as a statement of international law.

As regards notice the following American instructions were
given to blockading officers in June 1898 : —

" Neutral vessels are entitled to notification of a blockade before
they can be made prize for its attempted violation. The character
of this notification is not material. It may be actual, as by a vessel
of the blockading force, or constructive, as by a proclamation of the
government maintaining the blockade, or by common notoriety. If a
neutral vessel can be shown to have had notice of the blockade in
any way, she is good prize, and should be sent in for adjudication;
but should formal notice not have been given, the rule of constructive
knowledge arising from notoriety should be construed in a manner
liberal to the neutral.

" Vessels appearing before a blockaded port, having sailed without
notification, are entitled to actual notice by a blockading vessel.

1 James Madison, secretary of state, to Mr Thornton, 27th of
October 1803, 14 MS. Dom. Let. 215. Moore, Digest of International
Law, vii. 789.

They should be boarded by an officer, who should enter in the ship's
log the fact of such notice, such entry to include the name of the
blockading vessel giving notice, the extent of the blockade, the date
and place, verified by his official signature. The vessel is then to be
set free; and should she again attempt to enter the same or any
other blockaded port as to which she has had notice, she is good
prize. Should it appear from a vessel's clearance that she sailed after
notice of blockade had been communicated to the country of her
port of departure, or after the fact of blockade had, by a fair presump-
tion^ become commonly known at that port, she should be sent in as
a prize."

The passages in italics are not in accordance with the views
held by other states, which do not recognize the binding char-
acter of a diplomatic notification or of constructive notice from
notoriety.

The subject was brought up at the second Hague Conference
(1907) . The Italian and Mexican delegations submitted projects,
but after a declaration by the British delegate in charge of the
subject (Sir E. Satow) that blockade not having been included
in the Russian programme, his government had given him no in-
structions upon it, the subject, at his suggestion, was dropped.
A Voeu, however, was adopted in favour of formulating rules
on all branches of the laws and customs of naval war, and a con-
vention was agreed to for the establishment of an international
Prize Court (see Prize). Under Art. 7 of the latter convention
the Court was to apply the " rules of international law," and in
their absence the " general principles of justice and equity."
As soon as possible after the close of the second Hague Con-
ference the British government took steps to call a special
conference of the maritime powers, which sat from December 4,
1908 to February 26, 1909. Among the subjects dealt with
was Blockade, the rules relating to which are as follow: —

Art._ 1. A blockademust not extend beyond the ports and coasts
belonging to or occupied by the enemy.

Art. 2. In accordance with the Declaration of Paris of 1856, a
blockade, in order to be binding, must be effective — that is to say,
it must be maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access
to the enemy coastline.

Art. 3. The question whether a blockade is effective is a question
of fact.

Art. 4. A blockade is not regarded as raised if the blockading force
is temporarily withdrawn on account of stress of weather.

Art. 5. A blockade must be applied impartially to the ships of all
nations.

Art. 6. The commander of a blockading force may give permission
to a warship to enter, and subsequently to leave, a blockaded port.

Art. 7. In circumstances of distress, acknowledged by an officer
of the blockading force, a neutral vessel may enter a place under
blockade and subsequently leave it, provided that she has neither
discharged nor shipped any cargo there.

Art. 8. A blockade, in order to be binding, must be declared in
accordance with Article 9, and notified in accordance with Articles
11 and 16.

Art. 9. A declaration of blockade is made either by the blockading
power or by the naval authorities acting in its name. It specifies (1)
the date when the blockade begins; (2) the geographical limits of
the coastline under blockade; (3) the period within which neutral
vessels may come out.

Art. _ 10. If the operations of the blockading power, or of the naval
authorities acting in its name, do not tally with the particulars, which,
in accordance with Article 9 (1) and (2), must be inserted in the
declaration of blockade, the declaration is void, and a new declaration
is necessary in order to make the blockade operative.

Art. 11. A declaration of blockade is notified: (1) to neutral
powers, by the blockading power by means of a communication
addressed to the governments direct, or to their representatives
accredited to it ; (2) to the local authorities, by the officer command-
ing the blockading force. The local authorities will, in turn, inform
the foreign consular officers at the port or on the coastline under
blockade as soon as possible.

Art. 12. The rules as to declaration and notification of blockade
apply to cases where the limits of a blockade are extended, or where
a blockade is re-established after having been raised.

Art. 13. The voluntary raising of a blockade, as also any re-
striction in the limits of a blockade, must be notified in the manner
prescribed by Article 11.

Art. 14. The liability of a neutral vessel to capture for breach of
blockade is contingent on her knowledge, actual or presumptive, of
the blockade.

Art. 15. Failing proof to the contrary, knowledge of the blockade
is presumed if the vessel left a neutral port subsequently to the
notification of the blockade to the power to which such port belongs,
provided that such notification was made in sufficient time.

BLOCKHOUSE— BLOET

Art. 1 6. If a vessel approaching a blockaded port has no know-
ledge, actual or presumptive, of the blockade, the notification must
be made to the vessel itself by an officer of one of the ships of the
blockading force. This notification should be entered in the vessel's
logbook, and must state the day and hour, and the geographical
position of the vessel at the time. If through the negligence of the
officer commanding the blockading force no declaration of blockade
has been notified to the local authorities, or if in the declaration, as
notified, no period has been mentioned within which neutral vessels
may come out, a neutral vessel coming out of the blockaded port
must be allowed to pass free.

Art. 17. Neutral vessels may not be captured for breach of
blockade except within the area of operations of the warships
detailed to render the blockade effective.

Art. 18. The blockading forces must not bar access to neutral
ports or coasts.

Art. 19. Whatever may be the ulterior destination of a vessel
or of her cargo, she cannot be captured for breach of blockade, if, at
the moment, she is on her way to a non-blockaded port.

Art. 20. A vessel which has broken blockade outwards, or
which has attempted to break blockade inwards, is liable to capture
so long as she is pursued by a ship of the blockading force. If
the pursuit is abandoned, or if the blockade is raised, her capture
can no longer be effected.

Art. 21. A vessel found guilty of breach of blockade is liable
to condemnation. The cargo is also condemned, unless it is
proved that at the time of the shipment of the goods the shipper
neither knew nor could have known of the intention to break the
blockade. (T. Ba.)

BLOCKHOUSE, in fortification, a small roofed work serving
as a fortified post for a small garrison. The word, common
since 1500, is of uncertain origin, and was applied to what is now
called a fort d'arrct, a detached fort blocking the access to a
landing, channel, pass, bridge or defile. The modern blockhouse
is a building, sometimes of two storeys, which is loopholed on all
sides, and not infrequently, in the case of two-storey blockhouses,
provided with a m&chicoulis gallery. Blockhouses are built of
wood, brick, stone, corrugated iron or any material available.
During the South African War (1899-1902) they were often sent
from England to the front in ready-made sections.

BLOEMAERT, ABRAHAM (1564-1651), Dutch painter and
engraver, was born at Gorinchem, the son of an architect. He
was first a pupil of Gcrrit Splinter (pupil of Frans Floris) and of
Joos de Beer, at Utrecht. He then spent three years in Paris,
studying under several masters, and on his return to his native
country received further training from Hieronymus Francken.
In 1591 he went to Amsterdam, and four years later settled
finally at Utrecht, where he became dean of the Gild of St Luke.
He excelled more as a colourist than as a draughtsman, was
extremely productive, and painted and etched historical and
allegorical pictures, landscapes, still-life, animal pictures and
flower pieces. Among his pupils are his four sons, Hendrick,
Frederick, Cornelis and Adriaan (all of whom achieved consider-
able reputation as painters or engravers), the two Honthorsts
and Jacob G. Cuyp.

BLOEMEN, JAN FRANS VAN (1662-1740), Flemish painter,
was born at Antwerp, and studied and lived in Italy. At Rome
he was styled Orizonte, on account of his painting of distance
in his landscapes, which are reminiscent of Gaspard Poussin and
much admired. His brothers Pieter (1657-1719), styled Stan-
daart (from his military pictures), and Norbert (1670-1746),
were also well-known painters.

BLOEMFONTEIN, capital of the Orange Free State, in
29 8' S., 26 18' E. It is situated on the open veld, surrounded
by a few low kopjes, 4518 ft. above the sea, 105 m. by rail E.
by S. of Kimberley, 750 N.E. by E. of Cape Town, 450 N. by E.
of Port Elizabeth, and 257 S.W. of Johannesburg.

Bloemfontein is a very pleasant town, regularly laid out with
streets running at right angles and a large central market square.
Many of the houses are surrounded by large wooded gardens.
Through the town runs the Bloemspruit. After a disastrous
flood in 1904 the course of this spring was straightened and six
stone bridges placed across it. There are several fine public
buildings, mostly built of red brick and a fine-grained white
stone quarried in the neighbourhood. The Raadzaal, a building
in the Renaissance style, faces Market Square. Formerly the
meeting-place of the Orange Free State Raad, it is now the seat

of the provincial council. In front of the old Raadzaal (used
as law courts) is a statue of President Brand. In Douglas Street
is an unpretentious building used in turn as a church, a raadzaal,
a court-house and a museum. In it was signed (1854) the
convention which recognized the independence of the Free
State Boers (see Orange Free State: History). Among
the churches the most important, architecturally, are the
Dutch Reformed, a building with two spires, and the Anglican
cathedral, which has a fine interior. The chief educational
establishment is Grey University College, built 1 906-1 908 at
a cost of £125,000. It stands in grounds of 300 acres, a mile
and a half from the town. In the town is the original Grey
College, founded in 1856 by Sir George Grey, when governor of
Cape Colony. The post and telegraph office in Market Square
is one of the finest buildings in the town. The public library
fs housed in a handsome building in Warden Street. Opposite
it is the new national museum.

Bloemfontein possesses few manufactures, but is the trading
centre of the province. Having a dry healthy climate, it is a
favourite residential town and a resort for invalids, being recom-
mended especially for pulmonary disease. The mean maximum
temperature is 76-7° Fahr., the mean minimum 45-8°; the mean
annual rainfall about 24 in. There is an excellent water-supply,
obtained partly from Bloemspruit, but principally from the
Modder river at Sanna's Post, 22 m. to the east, and from
reservoirs at Moches Dam and Magdcpoort.

The population in 1904 was 33,883, of whom, including the
garrison of 3487, 15,501 were white, compared with a white
population of 2077 in 1890. The coloured inhabitants are mostly
Bechuana and Basuto. Most of the whites are of British origin,
and English is the common language of all, including the Dutch.

The spruit or spring which gives its name to the town was
called after one of the emigrant farmers, Jan Bloem. The town
dates from 1846, in which year Major H. D. Warden, then
British resident north of the Orange, selected the site as the
seat of his administration. When in 1854 independence was
conferred on the country the town was chosen by the Boers as
the seat of government. It became noted for the intelligence
of its citizens, and for the educational advantages it offered at
the time when education among the Boers was thought of very
lightly. In 1892 the railway connecting it with Cape Town and
Johannesburg was completed. During the Anglo-Boer War
of 1899-1902 it was occupied by the British under Lord Roberts
without resistance (13th of March 1900), fourteen days after the
surrender of General Cronje at Paardeberg. In Market Square
on the 28th of the following May the annexation of the Orange
Free State to the British dominions was proclaimed. - In 1907
the first session of the first parliament elected under the con-
stitution granting the colony self-government was held in
Bloemfontein. In 1910 when the colony became a province
of the Union of South Africa under its old designation of Orange
Free State, Bloemfontein was chosen as the seat of the Supreme
Court of South Africa. Its growth as a business centre after the
close of the war in 1902 was very marked. The rateable value
increased from £709,000 in 1901 to £2,400,000 in 1905.

BLOET, ROBERT (d. n 23), English bishop, was chancellor
to William I. and Rufus. From the latter he received the see
of Lincoln (1093) in succession to Remigius. His private char-
acter was indifferent; but he administered his see with skill
and prudence, built largely, and kept a magnificent household,
which served as a training-school even for the sons of nobles.
Bloet was active in assisting Henry I. during the rebellion of
1 102, and became that monarch's justiciar. Latterly, however,
he fell out of favour, and, although he had been very rich, was
impoverished by the fines which the king extorted from him.
Perhaps his wealth was his chief offence in the king's eyes;
for he was in attendance on Henry when seized with his last
illness. He was the patron of the chronicler Henry of Hunting-
don, whom he advanced to an archdeaconry.

Henry of Huntingdon and W. Malmesbury (De Gestis Pontificum)
are original authorities. See E. A. Freeman's William. Rufus; Sir
James Ramsay, The Foundations of England, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.)

BLOIS

75'

BLUIS, LOUIS DE (1506-1566), Flemish mystical writer,
generally known under the name of Blosius, was born in
October 1506 at the chateau of Donstienne, near Liege, of an
illustrious family to which several crowned heads were allied.
He was educated at the court of the Netherlands with the future
emperor Charles V. of Germany, who remained to the last his
staunch friend. At the age of fourteen he received the Bene-
dictine habit in the monastery of Liessies in Hainaut, of which
he became abbot in 1530. Charles V. pressed in vain upon
him the archbishopric of Cambrai, but Blosius studiously
exerted himself in the reform of his monastery and in the com-
position of devotional works. He died at his monastery on
the 7th of January 1566.

Blosius's works, which were written in Latin, have been
translated into almost every European language, and have
appealed not only to Roman Catholics, but to many English
laymen of note, such as W. E. Gladstone and Lord Coleridge.
The best editions of his collected works are the first edition by
J. Frojus (Louvain, 1568), and the Cologne reprints (1572,
1587). His best-known works are: — the Institutio Spiritualis
(Eng. trans., A Book of Spiritual Instruction, London, 1900);
Consolatio Pusillanimium (Eng. trans., Comfort for the Faint-
Hearted, London, 1903); Sacellum Animae Fidelis (Eng. trans.,
The Sanctuary of the Faithful Soul, London, 1905); all these
three works were translated and edited by Father Bertrand
Wilberforce, O.P., and have been reprinted several times;
and especially Speculum Monachorum (French trans, by Felicite
de Lamennais, Paris, 1809; Eng. trans., Paris, 1676; re-edited
by Lord Coleridge, London, 1871, 1872, and inserted in " Pater-
noster " series, 1901).

See Georges de Blois, Louis de Blois, un Benedictin au XVI ^" e
Steele (Paris, 1875), Eng. trans, by Lady Lovat (London, 1878, &c.).

BLOIS, a town of central France, capital of the department
of Loir-et-Cher, 35 m. S.W. of Orleans, on the Orleans railway
between that city and Tours. Pop. (1906) 18,457. Situated
in a thickly-wooded district on the right bank of the Loire, it
covers the summits and slopes of two eminences between which
runs the principal thoroughfare of the town named after the
philosopher Denis Papin. A bridge of the 18th century from
which it presents the appearance of an amphitheatre, unites
Blois with the suburb of Vienne on the left bank of the river.
The streets of the higher and older part of the town are narrow
and tortuous, and in places so steep that means of ascent is
provided by flights of steps. The famous chateau of the family
of Orleans (see Architecture: Renaissance Architecture in
France), a fine example of Renaissance architecture, stands on
the more westerly of the two hills. It consists of three main
wings, and a fourth and smaller wing, and is built round a court-
yard. The most interesting portion is the north-west wing,
which was erected by Francis I., and contains the room where
Henry, duke of Guise, was assassinated by order of Henry III.
The striking feature of the interior facade is the celebrated spiral
staircase tower, the bays of which, with their beautifully sculp-
tured balustrades, project into the courtyard (see Architecture,
Plate VIII. fig. 84) . The north-east wing, in which is the entrance
to the castle, was built by Louis XII. and is called after him;
it contains picture-galleries and a museum. Opposite is the
Gaston wing, erected by Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of
Louis XIII. , which contains a majestic domed staircase. In the
north corner of the courtyard is the Salle des Etats, which,
together with the donjon in the west corner, survives from the
13th century. Of the churches of Blois, the cathedral of St Louis,
a building of the end of the 17th century, but in Gothic style,
is surpassed in interest by St Nicolas, once the church of the
abbey of St Laumer, and dating from the 1 2th and 13th centuries.
The picturesqueness of the town is enhanced by many old
mansions, the chief of which is the Renaissance Hotel d'Alluye,
and by numerous fountains, among which that named after
Louis XII. is of very graceful design. The prefecture, the law
court, the corn-market and the fine stud-buildings are among
the chief modern buildings.

Blois is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes.

It has a tribunal offirst instance, a tribunal of commerce, a board
of trade arbitration, a branch of the Bank of France, a communal
college and training-colleges. The town is a market for the
agricultural and pastoral regions of Beauce and Sologne, and has
a considerable trade in grain, the wines of the Loire valley, and
in horses and other live-stock. It manufactures boots and
shoes, biscuits, chocolate, upholstering materials, furniture,
machinery and earthenware, and has vinegar-works, breweries,
leather-works and foundries.

Though of ancient origin, Blois is first distinctly mentioned by
Gregory of Tours in the 6th century, and was not of any import-
ance till the 9th century, when it became the seat of a powerful
countship (see below). In 1196 Count Louis granted privileges
to the townsmen; the commune, which survived throughout
the middle ages, probably dated from this time. The counts of
the Chatillon line resided at Blois more often than their pre-
decessors, and the oldest parts of the chateau (13 th century)
were built by them. In 1429 Joan of Arc made Blois her base
of operations for the relief of Orleans. After his captivity in
England, Charles of Orleans in 1440 took up his residence in the
chateau, where in 1462 his son, afterwards Louis XII., was born.
In the 1 6th century Blois was often the resort of the French
court. Its inhabitants included many Calvinists, and it was
in 1562 and 1567 the scene of struggles between them and the
supporters of the Roman church. In 1576 and 1588 Henry III.,
king of France, chose Blois as the meeting-place of the states-
general, and in the latter year he brought about the murders of
Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, Louis, archbishop of
Reims and cardinal, in the chateau, where their deaths were
shortly followed by that of the queen-mother, Catherine de'
Medici. From 1617 to 1619 Marie de' Medici, wife of King
Henry IV., exiled from the court, lived at the chateau, which
was soon afterwards given by Louis XIII. to his brother Gaston,
duke of Orleans, who lived there till his death in 1660. The
bishopric dates from the end of the 17th century. In 1814
Blois was for a short time the seat of the regency of Marie Louise,
wife of Napoleon I.

See L. de la Saussaye, Blois et ses environs (1873) ; Histoire du
chateau de Blois (1873); L. Bergevin et A. Dupre, Histoire de Blois
(1847).

BLOIS, Countship or. From 865 to about 940 the countship
of Blois was one of those which were held in fee by the margrave
of Neustria, Robert the Strong, and by his successors, the abbot
Hugh, Odo (or Eudes), Robert II. and Hugh the Great. It then
passed, about 940 and for nearly three centuries, to a new family
of counts, whose chiefs, at first vassals of the dukes of France,
Hugh the Great and Hugh Capet, became in 987, by the accession
of the Capetian dynasty to the throne of France, the direct
vassals of the crown. These new counts were originally very
powerful. With the countship of Blois they united, from 940 to
1044, that of Touraine, and from about 950 to 12 18, and after-
wards from 1269 to 1286, the countship of Chartres remained in
their possession.

The counts of Blois of the house of the Theobalds (Thibauds)
began with Theobald I., the Cheat, who became count about 940.
He was succeeded by his son, Odo (Eudes) I., about 975.
Theobald II., eldest son of Odo I., became count in 996, and
was succeeded by Odo II., younger son of Odo I., about 1005.
Odo II. was one of the most warlike barons of his time. With
the already considerable domains which he held from his
ancestors, he united the heritage of his kinsman, Stephen I.,
count of Troyes. In 1033 he disputed the crown of Burgundy
with the emperor, Conrad the Salic, and perished in 1037 while
fighting in Lorraine. He was succeeded in 103 7 by his eldest son,
Theobald III., who was defeated by the Angevins in 1044, and
was forced to give up the town of Tours and its dependencies
to the count of Anjou. In 1089 Stephen Henry, eldest son of
Theobald III., became count. He took part in the first crusade,
fell into the hands of the Saracens, and died in captivity; he
married Adela, daughter of William I., king of England. In
1 102 Stephen Henry was succeeded by his son, Theobald IV.
the Great, who united the countship of Troyes with his domains

7 6

BLOMEFIELD— BLONDEL

in 1128. In 1135, on the death of his maternal uncle, Henry I.,
king of England, he was called to Normandy by the barons of
the duchy, but soon renounced his claims on learning that his
younger brother, Stephen, had just been proclaimed king of
England. In 1 1 52 Theobald V. the Good, second son of Theobald
IV., became count; he died in 1191 in Syria, at the siege of Acre.
His son Louis succeeded in 1191, took part in the fourth crusade,
and after the taking of Constantinople was rewarded with the
duchy of Nicaea. He was killed at the battle of Adrianople in
1205, in which year he was succeeded by his son, Theobald VI.
the Young, who died childless. In 1218 the countship passed
to Margaret, eldest daughter of Theobald V., and to Walter
(Gautier) of Avesnes, her third husband.

The Chatillon branch of the counts of Blois began in 1230
with Mary of Avesnes, daughter of Margaret of Blois and her
husband, Hugh of Chatillon, count of St Pol. In 1241 her
brother, John of Chatillon, became count of Blois, and was
succeeded in 1279 by his daughter, Joan of Chatillon, who
married Peter, count of Alencon, fifth son of Louis IX., king of
France. In 1286 Joan, sold the countship of Chartres to the king
of France. Hugh of Chatillon, her first-cousin, became count
of Blois in 1293, and was succeeded by his son, Guy I., in 1307.
In 1342 Louis II., eldest son of Guy I., died at the battle of
Crecy, and his brother, Charles of Blois, disputed the duchy of
Brittany with John of Montfort. Louis III., eldest son of
Louis II., became count in 1346, and was succeeded by John II.,
second son of Louis II., in 1372. In 1381 Guy II., brother of
Louis III. and John II., succeeded in 1381, but died childless.
Overwhelmed with debt, he had sold the countship of Blois to
Louis I., duke of Orleans, brother *of King Charles VI., who took
possession of it in 1397.

In 1498 the countship of Blois was united with the crown by
the accession of King Louis XII., grandson and second successor
of Louis I., duke of Orleans.

See Bernier, Histoire de Blois (1682) ; La Saussaye, Histoire de la
ville de Blois (1846). (A. Lo.)

BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS (1705-1752), English topographer
of the county of Norfolk, was born at Fersfield, Norfolk, on
the 23rd of July 1705. On leaving Cambridge in 1727 he was
ordained, becoming in 1729 rector of Hargham, Norfolk, and
immediately afterwards rector of Fersfield, his father's family
living. In 1733 he mooted the idea of a history of Norfolk, for
which he had begun collecting material at the age of fifteen, and
shortly afterwards, while, collecting further information for
his book, discovered some of the famous Paston Letters. By
1736 he was ready to put some of the results of his researches into
type. At the end of 1739 the first volume of the History of
Norfolk was completed. It was printed at the author's own press,
bought specially for the purpose. The second volume was ready
in 1745. There is little doubt that in compiling his book Blome-
field had frequent recourse to the existing historical collections
of Le Neve, Kirkpatrick and Tanner, his own work being to a
large extent one of expansion and addition. To Le Neve in
particular a large share of the credit is due. When half-way
through his third volume, Blomefield, who had come up to London
in connexion with a special piece of research, caught smallpox,
of which he died on the 16th of January 1752. The remainder of
his work was published posthumously, and the whole eleven
volumes were republished in London between 1805 and 1810.

BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM (1829-1899), English
architect, son of Bishop C. J. Blomfield, was born on the 6th of
March 1829, and educated at Rugby and Trinity, Cambridge.
He was then articled as an architect to P. C. Hardwick, and
subsequently obtained a large practice on his own account. He
became president of the Architectural Association in 1861, and a
fellow (1867) and vice-president (1886) of the Royal Institute of
British Architects. In 1887 he became architect to the Bank of
England, and designed the law courts branch in Fleet Street, and
he was associated with A. E. Street in the building of the law
courts. In 1889 he was knighted. He died on the 30th of
October 1899. He was twice married, and brought up two sons,
Charles J. Blomfield and Arthur Conran Blomfield, to his own

profession, of which they became distinguished representatives.
Among the numerous churches which Sir Arthur Blomfield
designed, his work at St Saviour's, Southwark, is a notable
example of his use of revived Gothic, and he was highly regarded
as a restorer.

BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES (1786-1857), English divine,
was born on the 29th of May 1786 at Bury St Edmunds. He was
educated at the local grammar school and at Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he gained the Browne medals for Latin and
Greek odes, and carried off the Craven scholarship. In 1808 he
graduated as third wrangler and first medallist, and in the
following year was elected to a fellowship at Trinity College.
The first-fruits of his scholarship was an edition of the Prometheus
of Aeschylus in 18 10; this was followed by editions of the Septem
contra Thebas, Persae, Choephorae, and Agamemnon, of Calli-
machus, and of the fragments of Sappho, Sophron and Alcaeus.
Blomfield, however, soon ceased to devote himself entirely to
scholarship. He had been ordained in 1810, and held in quick
succession the livings of Chesterford, Quarrington, Dunton, Great
and Little Chesterford, and Tuddenham. In 18 17 he was
appointed private chaplain to Wm. Howley, bishop of London.
In 1819 he was nominated to the rich living of St Botolph's,
Bishopsgate, and in 1822 he became archdeacon of Colchester.
Two years later he was raised to the bishopric of Chester where he
carried through many much-needed reforms. In 1828 he was
translated to the bishopric of London, which he held for twenty-
eight years. During this period his energy and zeal did much to
extend the influence of the church. He was one of the best
debaters in the House of Lords, took a leading position in the
action for church reform which culminated in the ecclesiastical
commission, and did much for the extension of the colonial
episcopate; and his genial and kindly nature made him an,
invaluable mediator in the controversies arising out of the
tractarian movement. His health at last gave way, and in 1856
he was permitted to resign his bishopric, retaining Fulham
Palace as his residence, with a pension of £6000 per annum. He
died on the 5th of August 1857. His published works, exclusive
of those above mentioned, consist of charges, sermons, lectures
and pamphlets, and of a Manual of Private and Family Prayers.
He was a frequent contributor to the quarterly reviews, chiefly
on classical subjects.

See Memoirs of Charles James Blomfield, D. D., Bishop of London,
with Selections from his Correspondence, edited by his son, Alfred Blom-
field (1863) ; G. E. Biber, Bishop Blomfield and his Times (1857).

BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE (1788-1816), English
classical scholar, brother of Bishop C. J. Blomfield, was born at
Bury St Edmunds on the 14th of February 1788. Going to
Caius College, Cambridge, he was thirteenth wrangler in 181 1,
obtained several of the classical prizes of the university, and
became a fellow and lecturer at Emmanuel College. In 1813 he
travelled in Germany and made the acquaintance of some of
the great scholars of Germany. On his return, he published in
the Museum Criticum (No. ii.) an interesting paper on " The
Present State of Classical Literature in Germany." Blomfield is
chiefly known by his translation of Matthiae's Greek Grammar
( 1 8 1 9) , which was prepared for the press by his brother. He died
on the 9th of October 1816, his early death depriving Cambridge
of one who seemed destined to take a high place amongst her
most brilliant classical scholars.

See " Memoir of Edward Valentine Blomfield," by Bishop Monk,
in Museum Criticum, No. vii.

BLONDEL, DAVID (1591-1655), French Protestant clergyman,
was born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1591, and died on the 6th of
April 1655. In 1650 he succeeded G. J. Vossius in the professor-
ship of history at Amsterdam. His works were very numerous;
in some of them he showed a remarkable critical faculty, as in his
dissertation on Pope Joan (1647, !657), in which he came to the
conclusion, now universally accepted, that the whole story is a
mere myth. Considerable Protestant indignation was excited
against him on account of this book.

BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANQOIS (1705-1774), French archi-
tect, began life as an architectural engraver, but developed
into an architect of considerable distinction, if of no great

BLONDIN— BLOOD

originality. As architect to Louis XV. from 1755 he necessarily
did much in the rococo manner, although it would seem that he
conformed to fashion rather than to artistic conviction. He
was among the earliest founders of schools of architecture in
France, and for this he was distinguished by the Academy; but
he is now best remembered by his voluminous work L' Architecture
francaise, in which he was the continuator of Marot. The book is
a precious collection of views of famous buildings, many of which
have disappeared or been remodelled.

BLONDIN (1824-1897), French tight-rope walker and acrobat,
was born at St Omer, France, on the 28th of February 1824.
His real name was Jean Francois Gravelet. When five years
old he was sent to the Ecole de Gymnase at Lyons and, after six
months' training as an acrobat, made his first public appearance
as " The Little Wonder." His superior skill and grace as well
as the originality of the settings of his acts, made him a popular
favourite. He especially owed his celebrity and fortune to his
idea of crossing Niagara Falls on a tight-rope, n 00 ft. long,
160 ft. above the water. This he accomplished, first in 1859,
a number of times, always with different theatric variations:
blindfold, in a sack, trundling a wheelbarrow, on stilts, carrying
a man on his back, sitting down midway while he made and ate
an omelette. In 1861 Blondin first appeared in London, at the
Crystal Palace, turning somersaults on stilts on a rope stretched
across the central transept, 170 ft. from the ground. In 1862
he again gave a series of performances at the Crystal Palace,
and elsewhere in England, and on the continent. After a period
of retirement he reappeared in 1880, his final performance
being given at Belfast in 1896. He died at Ealing, London,
on the 19th of February 1897.

BLOOD, the circulating fluid in the veins and arteries of
animals. The word itself is common to Teutonic languages;
the 0. Eng. is bldd, cf. Gothic Moth, Dutch bloed, Ger. Blut. It
is probably ultimately connectefl with the root which appears
in " blow," " bloom," meaning flourishing or vigorous. The
Gr. word for blood, at/uct, appears as a prefix haemo- in many
compound words. As that on which the life depends, as the
supposed seat of the passions and emotions, and as that part
which a child is believed chiefly to inherit from its parents, the
word "blood" is used in many figurative and transferred
senses; thus " to have his blood," " to fire the blood," " cold
blood," " blood-royal," " half " or " whole blood," &c. The
expression " blue blood " is from the Spanish sangre azul. The
nobles of Castile claimed to be free from all admixture with the
darker blood of Moors or Jews, a proof being supposed to lie in
the blue veins that showed in their fairer skins. The common
English expletive " bloody," used as an adjective or adverb,
has been given many fanciful origins; it has been supposed to
be a contraction of " by our Lady," or an adaptation of the oath
common during the 17th century, " 'sblood," a contraction of
" God's blood." The exact origin of the expression is not quite
clear, but it is certainly merely an application of the adjective
formed from " blood." The New English Dictionary suggests
that it refers to the use of " blood " for a young rowdy of aristo-
cratic birth, which was common at the end of the 17th century,
and later became synonymous with "dandy," "buck," &c;
" bloody drunk " meant therefore "drunk as a blood," "drunk
as a lord." The expression came into common colloquial use
as a mere intensive, and was so used till the middle of the 18th
century. There can be little doubt that the use of the word
has been considerably affected by the idea of blood as the vital
principle, and therefore something strong, vigorous, and parallel
as an intensive epithet with such expressions as " thundering,"
" awfully " and the like.

Anatomy and Physiology
In all living organisms, except the most minute, only a mini-
mum number of cells can come into immediate contact with the
general world, whence is to be drawn the food supply for the
whole organism. Hence those cells — and they are by far the
most numerous — which do not lie on the food-absorbing surface,
must gain their nutriment by some indirect means. Further,

each living cell produces waste products whose accumulation
would speedily prove injurious to the cell, hence they must be
constantly removed from its immediate neighbourhood and
indeed from the organism as a whole. In this instance again,
only a few cells can lie on a surface whence such materials can
be directly discharged to the exterior. Hence the main number
of the cells of the organism must depend upon some mechanism
by which the waste products can be carried away from them
to that group of cells whose duty it is to modify them, or dis-
charge them from the body. These two ends are attained by the
aid of a circulating fluid, a fluid which is constantly flowing
past every cell of the body. From it the cells extract the food
materials they require for their sustenance, and into it they dis-
charge the waste materials resulting from their activity. This
circulating medium is the blood.

Whilst undoubtedly the two functions of this circulating
fluid above given are the more prominent, there are yet others
of great importance. For instance, it is known that many tissues
as a result of their activity produce certain chemical substances
which are of essential importance to the life of other tissue
cells. These substances — internal secretions as they are termed
— are carried to the second tissue by the blood stream. Again,
many instances are known in which two distant tissues com-
municate with one another by means of chemical messengers,
bodies termed hormones {bpixauv, to stir up), which are produced
by one group of cells, and sent to the other group to excite
them to activity. Here, also, the path by which such messengers
travel is the blood stream. A further and most important
manner in which the circulating fluid is utilized in the life of an
animal is seen in the way in which it is employed in protecting
the body should it be invaded by micro-organisms.

Hence it is clear that the blood is of the most vital importance
to the healthy life of the body. But the fact that it is present as
a circulating medium exposes the animal to a great dangef, viz.
that it may be lost should any vessel carrying it become ruptured.
This is constantly liable to happen, but to minimize as far as
possible any such loss, the blood is endowed with the peculiar
property of clotting, i.e. of setting to a solid or stiff jelly by
means of which the orifices of the torn vessels become plugged
and the bleeding stayed.

The performance of these essential functions depends upon
the maintenance of a continuous flow past all tissue cells, and
this is attained by the circulatory mechanism, consisting of a
central pump, the heart, and a system of ramifying tubes, the
arteries, through which the blood is forced from the heart to
every tissue (see Vascular System). A second set of tubes,
the veins, collects the blood and returns it to the heart. In
many invertebrates the circulating fluid is actually poured into
the tissue spaces from the open terminals of the arteries. From
these spaces it is in turn drained away by the veins. Such a
system is termed a haemolymph system and the circulating
fluid the haemolymph. Here the essential point gained is that
the fluid is brought into direct contact with the tissue cells.
In all vertebrates, the ends of the arteries are united to the
commencements of the veins by a plexus of extremely minute
tubes, the capillaries, consequently the blood is always retained
within closed tubes and never comes into contact with the tissue
cells. It is while passing through the capillaries that the blood
performs its work; here the blood stream is at its slowest and
is brought nearest to the tissue cell, only being separated from
it by the extremely thin wall of the capillary and by an equally
thin layer of fluid. Through this narrow barrier the interchanges
between cell and blood take place.

The advantage gained in the vertebrate animal by retaining
the blood in a closed system of tubes lies in the great diminution
of resistance to the flow of blood, and the consequent great
increase in rate of flow past the tissue cells. Hence any food
stuffs which can travel quickly through the capillary wall to
the tissue cell outside can be supplied in proportionately greater
quantity within a given time, without requiring any very great
increase in the concentration of that substance in the blood.
Conversely, any highly diffusible substance may be withdrawn

7 8

BLOOD

from the tissues by the blood at a similarly increased pace.
These conditions are more peculiarly of importance for the
supply of oxygen and the removal of carbonic acid — especially
for the former, because the amount of it which can be carried
by the blood is small. But as the rate at which a tissue lives,
i.e. its activity, depends upon the rate of its chemical reactions,
and as these are fundamentally oxidative, the more rapidly
oxygen is carried to a tissue the more rapidly it can live, and the
greater the amount of work it can perform within a given time.
The rate of supply is of much less importance in the case of
the other food substances because they are far more soluble in
water, so that the supply in sufficient quantity can easily be
met by a relatively slow blood flow. Hence we find that the
gradual evolution of the animal kingdom goes hand in hand
with the gradual development of a greater oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood and an increase in the rate of its flow.

In the groundwork of a tissue are a number of spaces — the
tissue spaces. They are filled with fluid and intercommunicate
freely, finally connecting with a number of fine tubes, the
lymphatics, through which excess of fluid or any solid particles
present are drained away. The contained fluid acts as an inter-
mediary between the blood and the cell; from it, the cell takes
its various food stuffs, these having in the first instance been
derived from the blood, and into it the cell discharges its waste
products. On the course of the lymphatics a number of typical
structures, the lymphatic glands, are placed, and the lymph
has to pass through these structures where any deleterious
products are retained, and the fluid thus purified is drained
away by further lymphatics and finally returned to the blood.
Thus there is a second stream of fluid from the tissues, but one
vastly slower than that of the blood. The flow is too slow for it
to act as the vehicle for the removal of those waste products
(carbonic acid, &c.) which must of necessity be removed quickly.
These' must be removed by the blood. The same is true for the
main number of other waste products, which, however, being
of small molecular size are readily absorbed into the blood
stream.

But in addition to fluid, the tissue spaces may at times be
found to contain solid matter in the form of particles, which
may represent the debris of destroyed cells, or which are, as is
quite commonly the case, micro-organisms. Apparently such
material cannot be removed from a tissue by absorption into
the blood stream — indeed in the case of living organisms such
an absorption would in many instances rapidly prove fatal, and
special provision is made to prevent such an accident. These,
therefore, are made to travel along the lymphatic channels,
and so, before gaining access to the blood stream and thus to the
body generally, have to run the gauntlet of the protective
mechanism provided by the lymphatic glands, where in the major
number of cases they are readily destroyed.

Hence we see that first and foremost we have to regard the
blood as a food-carrier to all the cells of the body; in the second
place as the vehicle carrying away most if not all the waste
products; in a third direction, it is acting as a means for trans-
mitting chemical substances manufactured in one tissue to
distant cells of the body for whose nutrition or excitation they
may be essential; and in addition to these important functions
there is yet another whose value it is almost impossible to over-
estimate, for it plays the essential role in rendering the animal
immune to the attacks of invading organisms. The question of
immunity is discussed elsewhere, and it is sufficient merely
to indicate the chief means by which the blood subserves this
essential protective mechanism. Should living organisms find
their way into the surface cells or within the tissue spaces, the
body fights them in a number of ways, (i) It may produce one
or more chemical substances capable of neutralizing the toxic
material produced by the organism. (2) It may produce chemical
substances which act as poisons to the micro-organism, either
paralysing it or actually killing it. Or (3) the organism may be
attacked and taken up into the body of wandering cells, e.g.
certain of the leucocytes, and then digested by them. Such cells
are therefore called phagocytes {4>ayeiv, to eat). Thus, by its

power of reacting in these ways the body has become capable
of withstanding the attacks of many different varieties of micro-
organisms, of both animal and vegetable origin.

General Properties.— Blood is an opaque, viscid liquid of
bright red colour possessing a distinct and characteristic odour,'
especially when warm. Its opacity is due to the presence of a
very large number of solid particles, the blood corpuscles, having
a higher refractive index than that of the liquid in which they
float. The specific gravity in man averages about 1-055. The
specific gravity of the liquid portion, the plasma (Gr. irKaaixa,
something formed or moulded, irXaaaav, to mould), is about
1-027, whilst that of the corpuscles amounts to 1-088. To litmus
it reacts as a weak alkali.

Blood Plasma. —The plasma is a solution in water of a varied
number of substances, and as a solvent it confers on the blood
its power of acting as a carrier of food stuffs and waste products.
One important food substance, oxygen, is, however, only partly
carried in solution, being mainly combined with haemoglobin
in the red corpuscles. The food stuffs carried by the plasma
are proteins, carbohydrates, salts and water. The main waste
products dissolved in it are ammonium carbonate, urea, urates,
xanthin bases, creatin and small amounts of other nitrogenous
bodies, carbonic acid as carbonates, other carbon compounds
such as cholesterin, lecithin and a number of other substances.
Thus, if we take mammalian blood as a type, the plasma would
have the following approximate composition: —

In 1000 grms. plasma —

Water 901-51

Substances not vaporizing at 120° C. —

Fibrin 8-o6

Other proteins and organic substances 81-92
Inorganic substances —

Chlorine
Sulphuric acid
Phosphoric acid
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Oxygen _ .

3-536
0-129
0-145
0-314
3-410
0-298

0-218

0-455

8-505

98-49

Proteins. — The proteins of the blood plasma belong to the two
classes of the albumins and the globulins. The globulins present
are named fibrinogen and serum-globulin; as its name implies,
the chief physiological property of fibrinogen is that it can give
rise to fibrin, the solid substance formed when blood clots. It
possesses the typical properties of a globulin, i.e. it coagulates
on heating (in this instance at a temperature of 56° C), and is
precipitated by half saturating its solution with ammonium
sulphate. It differs from other globulins in that it is less soluble.
It is only present in very small quantities, 0-4%. The other
globulin, serum-globulin, is not coagulated until 75 C. is reached,
and we now know that it is in reality a mixture of several
proteins, but so far these have not been completely separated
from one another and obtained in a pure form. On dialysing a
solution of serum-globulin a part is precipitated, and this portion
has been termed the eu-globulin fraction, the remainder being
known, in contradistinction, as the pseudo-globulin. Again, on
diluting a solution and adding a small amount of acetic acid a
precipitate is formed which in some respects differs from the
remainder of the globulin present. Whether in these two
instances we are dealing with approximately pure substances
is extremely doubtful. A further important point in connexion
with the chemistry of the globulins is that dextrose may be
found among their decomposition products, i.e. that a part of
it, or possibly the whole, possesses a glucoside character.

Serum-albumin gives all the typical colour and precipitation
reactions of the albumins. If plasma be weakly acidified with
sulphuric acid, then treated with crystals of ammonium sulphate
until a slight precipitate forms, filtered and the filtrate allowed
to evaporate very slowly, typical crystals of serum-albumin
may form. According to many it is a uniform and specific

BLOOD

substance, but others hold the view that it consists of at least
three distinct substances, as shown by the fact that if a solution
be gradually heated coagulation will occur at three different
temperatures, viz. at 73 , 77 and 84 C. On the other hand the
close agreement between different analyses of even the amorphous
preparations points to there being but one serum-albumin.

When blood clots two new proteins make their appearance in
the fluid part of the blood, or serum, as it is now called. The first
of these is fibrin ferment (for its origin see section on Clotting
below). The other, fibrinoglobulin, possesses all the typical
characteristics of the globulins and coagulates at 64° C.

Carbohydrates. — Three several carbohydrates are described
as occurring in plasma, viz. glycogen, animal gum and dextrose.
If glycogen is present in solution in the plasma it is there in very
small quantities only, and has probably arisen from the destruc-
tion of the white blood corpuscles, since some leucocytes un-
doubtedly contain glycogen. A small amount of carbohydrate
having the formula for starch and yielding a reducing sugar on
hydrolysis with acid has also been described. The constant
carbohydrate constituent of plasma, however, is dextrose. This
is present to the approximate amount of 0-15 % in arterial blood.
The amount may be much greater in' the blood of the portal vein
during carbohydrate absorption, and according to some observers
there is less in venous than in arterial blood, but the difference is
small and falls within the error of observation. The statement
that when no absorption is taking place the blood of the hepatic
vein is richer in dextrose than that of the portal vein (Bernard)
is denied by Pavy.

Fats. — Plasma or serum is as a rule quite clear, but after a meal
rich in fats it may become quite milky owing to the presence of
neutral fats in a very fine state of subdivision. This suspended
fat rapidly disappears from the blood after fat absorption has
ceased. To some extent it varies in composition with that of the
fat absorbed, but usually consists of the glycerides of the common
fatty acids — palmitic, stearic and oleic. In addition, there is a
small amount of fatty acid in solution in the plasma. As to the
form in which this occurs there is some uncertainty. It is
possibly present as a soap or even as a neutral fat, since a little can
be dissolved in plasma, the solvent substance being probably
protein or cholesterin. Fatty acids also appear to be present to
some extent combined with cholesterin forming cholesterin esters
(about 0-06%).

Other Organic Compounds. — In addition to the substances
above described, belonging to the three main classes of food stuffs,
there are still other organic bodies present in plasma in small
amounts, which for convenience we may classify as non-nitro-
genous and nitrogenous. Among the former may be mentioned
lactic acid, glycerin, a lipochrome, and probably many other
substances of a similar type whose separation has not yet been
effected.

The non-protein nitrogenous constituents consist of the
following: ammonia as carbonate or carbamate (0-2 to o-6%),
urea (0-02 to 0-05%), creatine, cr;ainine, uric acid, xanthine,
hypoxanthine and occasionally hippuric acid. Three ferments
are also described as being present: (1) a glycolytic ferment
exerting an action upon dextrose; (2) a lipase or fat-splitting
ferment; and (3) a diastase capable of converting starch into
sugar.

Salts. — The saline constituents of plasma comprise chlorides,
phosphates, carbonates and possibly sulphates, of sodium,
potassium, calcium and magnesium. The most abundant metal
is sodium and the most abundant acid is hydrochloric. These
two are present in sufficient amount to form about 0-65% of
sodium chloride. The phosphate is present to about 0-02 %.
Sulphuric acid is always present if the blood has been calcined
for the purposes of the analysis, and may then be present to about
0-013 %. This is, however, probably produced during the
destruction of the protein, since it has been shown that no
sulphate can be removed from normal plasma by dialysis. The
amount of potassium present (0-03 %) is less than one-tenth of
that of the sodium, and the quantities of calcium and magnesium
are even less.

Formed Elements. — When viewed under the microscope the
main number of these are seen to be small yellow bodies of very
uniform size, size and shape varying, however, in different
animals. When observed in bulk they have a red colour, their
presence in fact giving the typical colour to blood. These are the
red blood corpuscles or erythrocytes (Gr. kpvdpos, red). Mingled with
them in the blood are a smaller number of corpuscles which possess
no colour and have therefore been called white blood corpuscles
or leucocytes ( Gr. XevKos, white) . Lastly, there are present a large
number of small lens-shaped structures, less in number than the
red corpuscles, and much more difficult to distinguish. These are
known as blood platelets.

Red Corpuscles. — These are present in very large numbers and,
under normal conditions, all possess exactly the same appearance.
With rare exceptionstheir shape is that of a biconcave disk with
bevelled edges, the size varying somewhat in different animals,
as is seen in the following table which gives their diameters: —

Man 0-0075 mm.

Dog _ 0-0073 mm.

Rabbit 0-0069 mm.

Cat 0-0065 mm.

Goat 0-0041 mm.

The coloured corpuscles of amphibia as well as of nearly all
vertebrates below mammals are biconvex and elliptical. The
following are the dimensions of some of the more common: —

Pigeon . . . 0-0147 mm. long by 0-0065 mm. wide.

Frog . .

Newt

Proteus .

Amphiuma

Their number also varies as follows
Man .... 4,000,000 to

0-0223 >»

0-0157

0-0293 ...

0-0195

0-0580 „

0-0350

0-0770 ,,

,, 0-0460

Goat
Sheep
Birds .
Fish
Frog .
Proteus

5,000,000 per cub. mm.

9,000,000 to 10,000,000 ,, ,,

13,000,000 to 14,000,000 ,, „

1,000,000 to 4,000,000 „ ,,

250,000 to 2,000,000 ,, „
500,000 per cub. mm.
36,000

In mammals they are apparently homogeneous in structure,
have no nucleus, but possess a thin envelope. Their specific
gravity is distinctly higher than that of the plasma (1-088), so
that if clotting has been prevented, blood on standing yields a
large deposit which may form as much as half the total volume
of the blood.

Chemical Composition. — On destruction the red corpuscles
yield two chief proteins, haemoglobin and a nucleo-protein, and
a number of other substances similar to those usually obtained
on the break-down of any cellular tissue, such for instance as
lecithin, cholesterin and inorganic salts. The most important
protein is the haemoglobin. To it the corpuscle owes its dis-
tinctive property of acting as an oxygen carrier, for it possesses
the power of combining chemically with oxygen and of yielding
up that same oxygen whenever there is a decrease in the con-
centration of the oxygen in the solvent. Thus in a given solution
of haemoglobin the amount of it which is combined with oxygen
depends absolutely on the oxygen concentration. The greatest
dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin occurs as the oxygen tension falls
from about 40 to 20 mm. of mercury. That the oxygen forms a
definite compound with the haemoglobin is proved by the fact
that haemoglobin thoroughly saturated with oxygen (oxy-
haemoglobin) has a definite absorption spectrum showing two
bands between the D and E lines, whilst haemoglobin from which
the oxygen has been completely removed only gives one band
between those lines. In association with this, oxyhaemoglobin
has a typical bright red colour, whereas haemoglobin is dark
purple. A further striking characteristic of haemoglobin is that
it contains iron in its molecule. The amount present, though
small bears a perfectly definite quantitative relation to the
amount of oxygen with which the haemoglobin is capable of
combining (two atoms of oxygen to one of iron). One gram of
haemoglobin crystals can combine with 1-34 cc. of oxygen. On
destruction with an acid or alkali, haemoglobin yields a pigment
portion, haematin, and a protein portion, globin, the latter
belonging to the group of the histones (Gr. lards, web, tissue).

BLOOD

In this cleavage the iron is found in the pigment. By the use of
a strong acid, it may be made to yield iron-free pigment, the
remainder of the molecule being much further decomposed.

Destruction and Formation. — In the performance of their work
the corpuscles gradually deteriorate. They are then destroyed,
chiefly in the liver, but whether the whole of this process is
effected by the liver alone is not decided. It is proved, however,
that the destruction of the haemoglobin is entirely effected there.
It was for a long time considered to be one of the functions of the
spleen to examine the red corpuscles and to destroy or in some
way to mark those no longer fitted for the performance of their
work. It is proved that the destruction of the haemoglobin is
entirely effected in the liver, since both the main cleavage products
may be traced to this organ, which discharges the pigmentary
portion as the bile pigment, but retains the iron-protein moiety
at any rate for a time. The amount of bile pigment eliminated
during the day indicates that the destruction must be consider-
able, and since the number of corpuscles does not vary there must
be an equivalent formation of new ones. This takes place in the
red bone-marrow, where special cells are provided for their
continuous production. In embryonic life their formation is
effected in another way. Certain mesodermic cells, resembling
those of the connective tissue, collect masses of haemoglobin, and
from these elaborate red blood corpuscles which thus come to
lie in the fluid part of the cell. By a canalization of the branches
of these cells which unite with branches of other cells the pre-
cursors of the blood capillaries are formed.

White Blood Corpuscles. — These constitute the second import-
ant group of formed elements in the blood, and number about
1 2,000 to 20,000 per cubic mm. They are typical wandering cells
carried to all parts of the body by the blood stream, but often
leave that stream and gain the tissue spaces by passing through
the capillary wall. They exist in many varieties and were first
classified according as, under the microscope, they presented a
granular appearance or appeared clear. The cells were also
distinguished from one another according as they possessed fine
or coarse granules. The granules are confined to the protoplasm
of the cell, and it has been shown that they differ chemically,
because their staining properties vary. Thus, some granules
select an acid stain, and the cells containing them are then
designated acidophile or eosinophile; 1 other granules select a basic
stain and are called basophile, while yet others prefer a neutral
stain (neuirophile).

In human blood the following varieties of leucocytes may be
distinguished: —

1. The Polymorphonuclear Cell. — This possesses a nucleus of
very complicated outline and a fair amount of protoplasm filled
with numbers of fine granules which stain with eosin. They vary
in size but are usually about o-oi mm. in diameter. They are
highly amoeboid and phagocytic, and form about 70% of the
total number of leucocytes.

2. The Coarsely Granular Eosinophile Cell. — These large cells
contain a number of well-defined granules which stain deeply
with acid dyes. The nucleus is crescentic. The cells amount to
about 2 % of the total number of leucocytes, though the propor-
tion varies considerably. They are actively amoeboid.

3. The Lymphocyte. — This is the smallest leucocyte, being
only about 0-0065 mm. in diameter. It has a large spherical
nucleus with a small rim of clear protoplasm surrounding it.
It forms from 1 5 to 40 % of the number of leucocytes, and is less
markedly amoeboid than the other varieties.

4. The Hyaline (Gr. va'ki.vos, glassy, crystalline, vaXos, glass)
cell or macrocyte (Gr. /xa/cpos, long or large). — This is a cell
similar to the last with a spherical, oval or indented nucleus, but
it has much more protoplasm. It constitutes about 4 % of all
the leucocytes and is highly amoeboid and phagocytic.

5. The Basophile Cell. — This possesses a spherical nucleus and
the protoplasm contains a small number of granules staining

1 The suffix -phile, Greek 4>i\dv, to love, prefer, is in scientific
terminology frequently applied to substances that exhibit such
preference for particular stains or reagents, the names of which form
the first part of the word.

deeply with basic dyes. It is rarely found in the blood of adults
except in certain diseases.

Functions. — These cells act as scavengers or as destroyers of
living organisms that may have gained access to the tissue
spaces. They play an important part in the chemical processes
underlying the phenomena of immunity, and some at least are
of importance in starting the process of clotting.

They are constantly suffering destruction in the performance
of their work. Many, too, are lost to the body by their passage
through the different mucous surfaces. Their origin is still
obscure in many points. The lymphocytes are derived from
lymphoid tissue, wherever it exists in the different parts of the
body. The polymorphonuclear and eosinophile cells are derived
from the bone-marrow, each by division of specific mother cells
located in that tissue. The macrocyte is believed by many to
represent a further stage in the development of the lymphocyte.
Their rate of formation may be influenced by a variety of
conditions — for instance, they are found to vary in number
according to the diet and also, to a considerable extent, in
disease.

Platelets. — The platelets or thrombocytes (Gr. 0p6,uj3os, clot)
are the third class of formed elements occurring in mammalian
blood. There are still, however, many observers who consider
that platelets are not present in the normal circulating blood,
but only make their appearance after it has been shed or other-
wise injured. They are minute lens-shaped structures, and may
amount to as many as 800,000 per cubic mm. Under certain
conditions, examination has shown that they are protoplasmic
and amoeboid, and that each one contains a central body of
different staining properties from the remainder of the structure.
This has been regarded by some as a nucleus. On being brought
into contact with a foreign surface they adhere to it firmly, very
rapidly passing through a number of phases resulting ultimately
in the formation of granular debris. In shed blood they tend to
collect into groups, and during clotting, fibrin filaments may be
observed to shoot out from these clumps.

Variations in the Blood of different Animals. — If we contrast
the blood of different animals of the vertebrate class we find
striking differences both in microscopic appearances and in
chemical properties. In the first place, the corpuscles vary in
amount and in kind. Thus, whilst in a mammal the corpuscles
form 40 to 50 % of the total volume of the blood, in the lower
vertebrates the volume is much less, e.g. in frogs as low as 25 %
and in fishes even lower. The deficiency is chiefly in the red
corpuscles, the ratio of white to red increasing as we examine the
blood from animals lower in the scale. The corpuscles themselves
are also found to vary, especially the red ones. In the mammal
they are biconcave disks with bevelled edges, they do not contain
a nucleus so that they are not cells. In the bird they are larger,
ellipsoidal in shape and have a large nucleus in the centre of
the cell. In reptiles and amphibia the red corpuscles are also
nucleated, but the stroma portion containing the haemoglobin
is arranged in a thickened annular part encircling the nucleus.
When seen from the flat they are oval in section. In fishes the
corpuscles show very much the same structure. A further very
significant difference to be observed between the bloods of
different vertebrates is in the amount of haemoglobin they
contain; thus in the lower classes, fishes and amphibia, not only
is the number of red corpuscles small but the amount of haemo-
globin each corpuscle contains is relatively low. The concentra-
tion of the haemoglobin in the corpuscles attains its maximum
in the mammal and the bird. Since the haemoglobin is practically
the same from whatever animal it is obtained and can only com-
bine with the same amount of oxygen, the oxygen-capacity of the
blood of any vertebrate is in direct proportion to the amount of
haemoglobin it contains. Therefore we see that as we ascend
the scale in the vertebrate series the oxygen-carrying capacity
of the blood rises. This increase was a natural preliminary
condition for the progress of evolution. In order that a more
active animal might be developed the main essential was that
the chemical processes of the cell should be carried out more
rapidly, . and as these processes are fundamentally oxidative,

BLOOD

increased activity entails an increased rate of supply of oxygen.
This latter has been brought about in the animal kingdom in
two ways, first by an increase in the concentration of the haemo-
globin of the blood effected by an increase both in the number of
corpuscles and in the amount of haemoglobin contained in each,
and secondly by an increase in the rate at which the blood has
been made to pass through the tissues. In the lower vertebrates
the blood pressure is low and the haemoglobin content of the
blood is low, consequently both rate of blood-flow and oxygen-
content are low. In contrast with this, in higher vertebrates the
blood pressure is high and the haemoglobin content of the blood
is high, consequently both rate of blood-flow and oxygen-content
are high. We must associate with this important step in evolu-
tion the means employed for the more rapid absorption of
oxygen and for its increased rate of discharge to the tissues, the
most important features of which are a diminution in the size of
the corpuscle and the attainment of its peculiar shape, both
resulting in the production of a relatively enormous corpuscular
surface in a unit volume of blood.

Variations are also found in the white corpuscles as well as in
the red, but these differences are not so striking and lie chiefly
in unimportant details of structure of individual cells. Enormous
variations are to be found in different species of mammals, but
the cells generally conform to the types of secreting cells or
phagocytes.

The platelets also differ in the different species. In the frog,
for instance, many are spindle-shaped and contain a nucleus-like
structure. Birds' blood is stated to contain no platelets. The
variations in number of these bodies have not. been satisfactorily
ascertained on account of the difficulties involved in any attempt
to preserve them and to render them visible under the microscope.
Differences are also found in the chemical composition of the
plasma. The chief variation is in the amount of protein present,
which attains its maximum concentration in birds and mammals,
while in reptiles, amphibia and fishes it is much less. The
bloods of the latter two classes are much more watery than that
of the mammal. Moreover, it has been proved that there are
specific differences in the chemical nature of the various proteins
present even between different varieties of mammals. Thus the
ratio of the globulin fraction to the albumin fraction may vary
considerably, and again, one or other of the proteins may be
quite specific for the animal from which it is derived .

Clotting. — If a sample of blood be withdrawn from an animal,
within a short time it undergoes a series of changes and becomes
converted into a stiff jelly. It is said to clot. If the process is
watched it is seen to start first from the surfaces where it is in
contact with any foreign body; thence it extends through the
blood until the whole mass sets solid. A short time elapses
before this process commences — a time dependent upon two
chief conditions, viz. the temperature at which the blood is kept
and the extent of foreign surface with which it is brought into
contact. Thus in a mammal the blood clots most quickly at a
temperature a little above body temperature, while if the blood
be cooled quickly the clotting is considerably delayed and in the
case of some animals altogether prevented. For example, human
blood kept at body temperature clots in three minutes, while if
allowed to cool to room temperature the first sign of clotting may
not make its appearance until eight minutes after its removal
from the body. The process of clotting is also considerably
accelerated by making the blood flow in a thin stream over a
wide surface. The full completion of the process occupies some
time if the blood be kept quiet, but ultimately the whole mass
of the blood becomes converted into a solid. At this stage the
containing vessel may be inverted without any drop of fluid
escaping. A short time after this stage has been reached drops
of a yellow fluid appear upon the surface and, increasing in size
and number, run together to form a layer of fluid separated from
the clot. This fluid is termed serum; its appearance is due to the
contraction of the clot, which thus squeezes out the fluid from
between its solid constituents. Contraction continues for about
twenty-four hours, at the end of which time a large quantity
(one-third or more of the total volume) of serum may have

been separated. The clot contracts uniformly, thus preserving
throughout the same general shape as that of the vessel in which
the blood has been collected. Finally the clot swims freely in
the serum which it has expressed.

The cause of the clot formation has been found to be the
precipitation of a solid from the liquid plasma of the blood.
This solid is in the form of very minute threads and hence is
termed fibrin. The threads traverse the mass of blood in every
possible direction, interlacing and thus confining in their meshes
all the solid elements of the blood. Soon after their deposition
they begin to contract, and as the meshwork they form is very
minute they carry with them all the corpuscles of the blood.
These with the fibrin form the shrunken clot.

If the rate at which blood clots be retarded either by cooling
or by some other process the corpuscles may have time to settle,
partially or completely, in which case distinct layers may form.
The lowermost of these contains chiefly the red corpuscles, the
second layer may be grey owing to the high percentage of leuco-
cytes present, while a third, marked by opalescence only, may
be very rich in platelets. Above these a clear layer of fluid
may be found. This is plasma. The formation of these layers
depends solely upon the rate of sedimentation of these elements,
the rate depending partly upon differences in specific gravity,
and partly upon the tendency the corpuscles have to run into
clumps. Horse's blood offers one of the best instances of the
clumping of red corpuscles, and in this animal sedimentation
of the red corpuscles is most rapid.

If now such a sedimented blood is allowed to clot the process
is found to start in the middle two layers, i.e. in those
containing the white corpuscles and platelets. From these
layers it spreads through the rest of the liquid, being most
retarded, however, in the red corpuscle layer, and particularly
so if the sedimentation has been very complete. Not only does
the clotting process start from the layers containing the leuco-
cytes and platelets, but in them it also proceeds more quickly.
These observations clearly indicate that the clotting process is
initiated by some change starting from these elements.

The object of the clotting of the blood is quite clear. It is
to prevent, as far as possible, any loss of blood when there is
an injury to an animal's vessels. The shed blood becomes con-
verted into a solid, and this, extending into the interior of the
ruptured vessel, forms a plug and thus arrests the bleeding.
It is found that clotting is especially accelerated whenever
the blood touches a foreign tissue, for instance, the outer layers
of a torn blood-vessel wall, muscle tissue, &c, i.e. in exactly
those conditions in which rapid clotting becomes of the greatest
importance. Yet another very pregnant fact in connexion
with clotting is that if an animal be bled rapidly and the blood
collected in successive samples it is found that those collected
last clot most quickly. Hence the more excessive the haemor-
rhage in any case, the greater becomes the onset of the natural
cure for the bleeding, viz. clotting.

When we begin to inquire into the nature of clotting we have
to determine in the first place whence the fibrin is derived.
It has long been known that two chemical substances at least
are requisite for its production. Thus certain fluids are known,
e.g. some samples of hydrocele or pericardial fluid, which will
not clot spontaneously, but will clot rapidly when a small
quantity of serum or of an old blood-clot is added to it. The
constituent substance which is present in the first-named fluids
is known as fibrinogen, and that present in the serum or the
clot is known as fibrin-ferment or thrombin.

Fibrinogen is present in living blood dissolved in the plasma;
it is also present in such fluids as hydrocele or pericardial effusions,
which, though capable of clotting, do not clot spontaneously.
Thrombin, on the other hand, does not exist in living blood, but
only makes its appearance there after blood is shed. It is not
yet certain what is the nature of the final reaction between
fibrinogen and thrombin. The possibilities are, that thrombin
may act — (i) by acting upon fibrinogen, which it in some way
converts into fibrin, (2) by uniting with fibrinogen to form fibrin,
or (3) by yielding part of itself to the fibrinogen which thus

BLOOD

becomes converted into fibrin. The experimental study of the
rate of fibrin formation, when different strengths of thrombin
solutions are allowed to act upon a fibrinogen solution, leads
us to the probable conclusion that the first of these three possi-
bilities is the correct one, and that thrombin therefore exerts
a true ferment action upon fibrinogen. It is known that in the
reaction, in addition to the formation of fibrin, yet another
protein makes its appearance. This is known as fibrinoglobulin,
and apparently it arises from the fibrinogen, so that the change
would be one of cleavage into fibrin and fibrinoglobulin. It
is very noteworthy that although the amount of fibrin formed
during the clotting appears very bulky, yet the actual weight
is extremely small, not more than 0-4 grms. from 100 cc. of
blood.

Having ascertained that the clotting is due to the action of
thrombin upon fibrinogen, we now see that the next step to be
explained is the origin of thrombin. It has been shown that the
final step in its formation consists in the combination of another
substance, termed prothrombin, with calcium. Any soluble
calcium salt is found to be effective in this respect, and con-
versely the removal of soluble calcium (e.g. by sodium oxalate)
will prevent the formation of thrombin and therefore of clotting.

In the next place it can be proved that prothrombin does not
exist as such in circulating blood, so that the problem becomes
an inquiry as to the origin of prothrombin. Experiment has
shown that in its turn prothrombin arises from yet another
precursor, which is named thrombogen, and that thrombogen
also is not to be found in circulating blood but only makes its
appearance after the blood is shed. The conversion of throm-
bogen into prothrombin has been proved to be due to the action
of a second ferment which has been named thrombokinase, and
this latter is again absent from living blood. Hence the question
arises, whence are derived thrombogen and thrombokinase?
In the study of this question it has been found that if the blood
of birds be collected direct from an artery through a perfectly
clean cannula into a clean and dust-free glass vessel, it does not
clot spontaneously. The plasma collected from such blood is
found to contain thrombogen but no thrombokinase. A some-
what similar plasma may be prepared from a mammal's blood
by collecting samples of blood from an artery into vessels which
have been thoroughly coated with paraffin, though in this instance
thrombogen may be absent as well as thrombokinase. If
plasma containing thrombogen but no thrombokinase be treated
with a saline extract of any tissues it will soon clot. The saline
extract contains thrombokinase. This ferment can therefore
be derived from most tissues, including also the white blood
corpuscles and the platelets. Thrombogen is produced from the
leucocytes, but it is not yet certain whether it is also formed
from the platelets. The discovery of the origin of the throm-
bokinase from tissue cells explains a fact that has long been
known, namely, that if in collecting blood, it is allowed to flow
over cut tissues, clotting is most markedly accelerated. The
fact that birds' blood if very carefully collected will not clot
spontaneously tends to prove that thrombokinase is not derived
from the leucocytes, and makes probable its origin from the
platelets, for it is known that birds' blood apparently does not
contain platelets, at any rate in the form in which they are
found in mammalian blood. When examining the general
properties of platelets, attention was drawn to the remarkably
rapid manner in which they undergo change on coming into
contact with a foreign surface. It is apparently the actual
contact which initiates these changes, changes which are funda-
mentally chemical in character, resulting in the production of
thrombokinase and possibly also of thrombogen.

Thus as our knowledge at present stands the following
statement gives a recapitulated account of the changes which
constitute the many phases of clotting. When blood escapes
from a blood-vessel it comes into contact with a foreign surface,
either a tissue or the damaged walls of the cut vessel. Very
speedily this contact results in the discharge of thrombogen and
thrombokinase, the former from the white blood corpuscles and
also possibly from the platelets, the latter from the platelets

or from the tissue with which the blood comes in contact. The
interaction of these two bodies next results in the formation of
prothrombin, which, combining with the calcium of any soluble
lime salt present, forms thrombin or fibrin-ferment. The last
step in the change is the action of thrombin upon fibrinogen
to form fibrin, and the clot is complete.

The intrinsic value to the animal of these changes is quite
plain. The power of clotting and thus stopping haemorrhage
is of essential importance, and yet this clotting must not occur
within the living blood-vessels, or it would speedily result in
death. That the tissues should be able to accelerate the process
is of very obvious value. That the inner lining of the blood-
vessels does not act as a foreign tissue is possibly due to the
extreme smoothness of their surface.

Further, an animal must always be exposed to a possible
danger in the absorption of some thrombin from a mass of clotted
blood still retained within the body, and we know that if a
quantity of active ferment be injected into the blood-stream
intravascular clotting does result. Under all usual conditions
this is obviated, the protective mechanism being of a twofold
character. First, it is found that thrombin becomes converted
very quickly into an inactive modification. Serum, for instance,
very quickly loses its power of inducing clotting in fibrinogen
solutions. Secondly, the body has been found to possess the
power of making a substance, antithrombin, which can combine
with thrombin forming a substance which is quite inactive as
far as clotting is concerned. Finally, there is evidence that
normal blood contains a small quantity of this substance,
antithrombin, and that under certain conditions the amount
present may be enormously increased. (T. G. Br.)

Pathology of the Blood.

The changes in the blood in disease are probably as numerous
and varied as the diseases which attack the body, for the blood
is not only the medium of respiration, but also of nutrition, of
defence against organisms and of many other functions, none
of which can be affected without corresponding alterations
occurring in the circulating fluid. The immense majority of
these changes are, however, so subtle that they escape detection
by our present methods. But in certain directions, notably
in regard to the relations with micro-organisms, changes in the
blood-plasma can be made out, though they are not associated
in all cases with changes in the formed elements which float in
it, nor with any obvious microscopical or chemical alterations.

The phenomena of immunity to the attacks of bacteria or
their toxins, of agglutinative action, of opsonic action, of the
precipitin tests, and of haemolysis, are all largely f mmunity
dependent on the inherent or acquired characters
of the blood serum. It is a commonplace that different
people vary in their susceptibility to the attacks of different
organisms, and different species of animals also vary greatly.
This " natural immunity " is due partly to the power possessed
by the leucocytes or white blood corpuscles of taking into their
bodies and digesting or holding in an inert state organisms which
reach the blood — phagocytosis, — partly to certain bodies in
the blood serum which have a bactericidal action, or whose
presence enables the phagocytes to deal more easily with the
organisms. This natural immunity can be heightened when
it exists, or an artificial immunity can be produced in various
ways. Doses of organisms or their toxins can be injected on
one or several occasions, and provided that the lethal dose
be not reached, in most cases an increased power of resistance is
produced. The organisms may be injected alive in a virulent
condition, or with their virulence lessened by heat or cold,
by antiseptics, by cultivation in the presence of oxygen, or by
passage through other animals, or they may first be killed, or
their toxins alone injected. The method chosen in each case
depends on the organism dealt with. The result of this treat-
ment is that in the animal treated protective substances appear
in the serum, and these substances can be transferred to the
serum of another animal or of man; in other words the active
immunity of the experimental animal can be translated into

BLOOD

the passive immunity of man. According to the nature of the
substances injected into the former, its serum may be antitoxic,
if it has been immunized against any particular toxin, or anti-
bacterial, if against an organism. Familiar examples of these
are, of the former diphtheria antitoxin, of the latter anti-plague
and anti-typhoid sera. An antitoxin exerts its effects by actual
combination with the respective toxin, the combination being
inert. It is probable that the ultimate source of the antitoxin is
to be found in the living cells of the tissues and that it passes
from them into the blood. The action of an antibacterial serum
depends on the presence in it of a substance known as " immune-
body," which has a special affinity and power of combining
with the bacterium used. In order that it may exert this power
it requires the presence of a substance normally present in the
serum known as " complement." The development of these
" anti-bodies," though jt has been studied mainly in connexion
with bacteria and their toxins, is not confined to their action,
but can be demonstrated in regard to many other substances,
such as ferments, tissue cells, red corpuscles, &c. In some
animals, for example, the blood serum has the power of dissolv-
ing the red corpuscles of an animal of different species; e.g. the
guinea-pig's serum is " haemolytic " to the red corpuscles of
the ox. This haemolytic power (haemolysis) can be increased
by repeated injections of red corpuscles from the other animal,
in this case also, as in the bacterial case, by the production and
action of immune-body and complement. The antiserum pro-
duced in the case of the red corpuscles may sometimes, if injected
into the first animal, whose red corpuscles were used, cause
extensive destruction of its red corpuscles, with haemo-
globinuria, and sometimes a fatal result.

Opsonic action depends on the presence of a substance, the
" opsonin," in the serum of an immunized animal, which makes
the organism in question more easily taken up by the phagocytes
(leucocytes) of the blood. The opsonin becomes fixed to the
organisms. It is present to a certain extent in normal serum,
but can be greatly increased by the process of immunization;
and the " opsonic index," or relation between the number of
organisms taken up by leucocytes when treated with the serum
of a healthy person or " control," and with the serum of a
person affected with any bacterial disease and under treatment
by immunization, is regarded by some as representing the degree
of immunity produced.

Agglutinative action is evidence of the presence in a serum
of a somewhat similar set of substances, known as " agglutinins."
When a portion of an antiserum is added to an emulsion of the
corresponding organism, the organisms, if they are motile, cease
to move, and in any case become gathered together into clumps.
In all probability several different bodies are concerned in this
process. This reaction, in its practical applications at least,
may be regarded as a reaction of infection rather than of im-
munization as oidinarily understood, for it is found that the
blood serum of patients suffering from typhoid, Malta fever,
cholera, and many other bacterial diseases, agglutinates the
corresponding organisms. This fact has come to be of great
importance in diagnosis.

The precipitin test depends on a somewhat analogous reaction.
If the serum of an animal be injected repeatedly into another
animal of different species, a " precipitin " appears in the serum
of the animal treated, which causes a precipitate when added
to the serum of the first animal. The special importance of this
fact is that it can be utilized as a method of distinguishing
between human blood and that of animals, which is often of
importance in medical jurisprudence.

In this summary the facts adduced are practically all biological,
and are due to the extraordinary activity with which the study
of bacteriology (<?.».) has been pursued in recent years. The
chemistry of the blood has not hitherto been found to give
information of clinical or diagnostic importance, and nothing
need here be added to what is said above on the physiology of
the blood. Enough has been said, however, to show the extra-
ordinary complexity of the apparently simple blood serum.

The methods at present employed in examining the blood

Anaemia.

clinically are: the enumeration of the red and white corpuscles
per cubic millimetre; the estimation of the percentage of
haemoglobin and of the specific gravity of the blood; the micro-
scopic examination of freshly-drawn blood and of blood films
made upon cover-glasses, fixed and stained. In special cases the
alkalinity and the rapidity of coagulation may be ascertained,
or the blood may be examined bacteriologically. We have no
universally accepted means of estimating, during life, the total
amount of blood in the body, though the method of J. S. Haldane
and J. Lorrain Smith, in which the total oxygen capacity of the
blood is estimated, and its total volume worked out from that
datum, has seemed to promise important results {Journ. of
Physiol, vol. xxv. p. 331, 1900). After death the amount df
blood sometimes seems to be increased, and sometimes, as in
" pernicious anaemia," it is certainly diminished. But the high
counts of red corpuscles which are occasionally reported as
evidence of plethora or increase of the total blood are really only
indications of concentration of the fluid except in certain rare
cases. It is necessary, therefore, in examining blood diseases,
to confine ourselves to the study of the blood-unit, which is
always taken as the cubic millimetre, without reference to the
number of units in the body. •

Anaemia is often used as a generic term for all blood diseases,
for in almost all of them the haemoglobin is diminished, either
as a result of diminution in the number of the red
corpuscles in which it is contained, or because the
individual red corpuscles contain a smaller amount of haemo-
globin than the normal. As haemoglobin is the medium of
respiratory interchange, its diminution causes obvious symptoms,
which are much more easily appreciated by the patient than
those caused by alterations in the plasma or the leucocytes. It
is customary to divide anaemias into " primary " and " second-
ary ": the primary are those for which no adequate cause has
as yet been discovered; the secondary, those whose cause is
known. Among the former are usually included chlorosis,
pernicious anaemia, and sometimes the leucocythaemias;
among the latter, the anaemias due to such agencies as malignant
disease, malaria, chronic metallic poisoning, chronic haemor-
rhage, tubercle, Bright's disease, infective processes, intestinal
parasites, &c. As our knowledge advances, however, this dis-
tinction will probably be given up, for the causes of several
of the primary anaemias have been discovered. For example,
the anaemia due to bothriocephalus, an intestinal parasite, is
clinically indistinguishable from the other forms of pernicious
anaemia with which it used to be included, and leucocythaemia
has been declared by Lowit, though probably erroneously, to
be due to a blood parasite closely related to that of malaria.
In all these conditions there is a considerable similarity in the
symptoms produced and in the pathological anatomy. The
general symptoms are pallor of the skin and mucous membranes,
weakness and lassitude, shortness of breath, palpitation, a
tendency to fainting, and usually also gastro-intestinal disturb-
ance, headache and neuralgia. The heart is often dilated, and
on auscultation the systolic murmurs associated with that
condition are heard. In fatal cases the internal organs are
found to be pale, and very often their cells contain an excessive
amount of fat. In many anaemias there is a special tendency
to haemorrhage. Most of the above symptoms and organic
changes are directly due to diminished respiratory interchange
from the loss of haemoglobin, and to its effect on the various
organs involved. The diagnosis depends ultimately in all cases
upon the examination of the blood.

Though the relative proportions of the leucocytes are probably
continually undergoing change even in health, especially as the
result of taking food, the number of red corpuscles remains much
more constant. Through the agency of some unknown mechan-
ism, the supply of fresh red corpuscles from the bone-marrow
keeps pace with the destruction of effete corpuscles, and in
health each corpuscle contains a definite and constant amount
of haemoglobin. The disturbance of this arrangement in
anaemia may be due to loss or to increased destruction of cor-
puscles, to the supply of a smaller number of new ones, to a

8 4

BLOOD

diminution of the amount of haemoglobin in the individual
new corpuscles, or to a combination of these causes. It is most
easy to illustrate this by describing what happens after a haemor-
rhage. If this is small, the loss is replaced by the fully-formed
corpuscles held in reserve in the marrow, and there is no dis-
turbance. If it is larger, the amount of fluid lost is first made up
by fluid drawn from the tissues, so that the number of corpuscles
is apparently diminished by dilution of the blood; the erythro-
blasts, or formative red corpuscles, of the bone-marrow are
stimulated to proliferation, and new corpuscles are quickly
thrown into the circulation. These are apt, however, to be small
and to contain a subnormal amount of haemoglobin, and it is
only after some time that they are destroyed and their place
taken by normal corpuscles. If the loss has been very great,
nucleated red corpuscles may even be carried into the blood-
stream. The blood possesses a great power of recovery, if time
be given it, because the organ (bone-marrow) which forms so
many of its elements never, in health, works at high pressure.
Only a part of the marrow, the so-called red marrow, is normally
occupied by erythroblastic tissue, the rest of the medullary
cavity of the bones being taken up by fat. If any long-continued
demand for red corpuscles is made, the fat is absorbed, and its
place gradually taken by red marrow. This compensatory change
is found in all chronic anaemias, no matter what their cause may
be, except in some rare cases in which the marrow does not react.

It is often very difficult, especially in " secondary " anaemias,
to say which of the above processes is mainly at work. In acute
anaemias, such as those associated with septicaemia, there is no
doubt that blood destruction plays the principal part. But if
the cause of anaemia is a chronic one, a gastric cancer, for
instance, though there may possibly be an increased amount of
destruction of corpuscles in some cases, and though there is often
loss by haemorrhage, the cancer interferes with nutrition, the
blood is impoverished and does not nourish the erythroblasts
in the marrow sufficiently, and the new corpuscles which are
turned out are few and poor in haemoglobin. In chronic
anaemias, regeneration always goes on side by side with destruc-
tion, and it is important to remember that the state of the blood
in these conditions gives the measure, not of the amount of
destruction which is taking place so much as of the amount of
regeneration of which the organism is capable. The evidence of
destruction has often to be sought for in other organs, or in
secretions or excretions.

Of the so-called primary anaemias the most common is
chlorosis, an anaemia which occurs only in the female sex,
between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five as a rule. Its
symptoms are those caused by a diminution of haemoglobin,
and though it is never directly fatal, and is extremely amenable
to treatment with iron preparations, its subjects very frequently
suffer from relapses at varying intervals after the first attack.
Its causation is probably complex. Bad hygienic conditions,
over-fatigue, want of proper food, especially of the iron-contain-
ing proteids of meat, the strain put upon the blood and blood-
forming organs by the accession of puberty and the occurrence
of menstruation, all probably play a part in it. It has also been
suggested that internal secretions may be concerned in stimulat-
ing the bone-marrow, and that in the female sex in particular
the genital organs may act in this way. Imperfect assumption
of function by these organs at puberty, caused perhaps by some
of the above-mentioned conditions, might lead to sluggishness
in the bone-marrow, and to the supply to the blood of the
poorly-formed corpuscles deficient in haemoglobin which are
characteristic of the disease. Chlorosis is the type of anaemias
from imperfect blood-formation. Lorrain Smith has produced
evidence to show that the total amount of haemoglobin in the
body is not diminished in this disease, but that the blood-plasma
is greatly increased in amount, so that the haemoglobin is diluted
and the amount in each blood-unit greatly lessened.

Pernicious anaemia is a rarer disease than chlorosis, occurs
usually later in life, and is distributed nearly equally between
the two sexes. But it is of great importance because of its
almost uniformly fatal termination, though its downward course

is generally broken by temporary improvement on one or more
occasions. The symptoms are those of a progressive anaemia,
in which gastro-intestinal disturbance usually plays a large part,
and nervous symptoms are common, and they become at last
much more severe than those of any secondary anaemia. The
patient may die in the first attack, but more usually, when things
seem to be at their worst, improvement sets in, either spon-
taneously or as the result of treatment, and the patient slowly
regains apparent health. This remission may be followed by a
relapse, that again by a remission, and so on, but as a rule the
disease is fatal within, at the outside, two or three years.

The prime cause of the disease is not known. It seems probable
indeed that the causal factors are numerous. Severe malarial
infection, syphilis, pregnancy, chronic gastro-intestinal disease,
chronic gas-poisoning, are all, in different cases, known to have
been causally associated with it, and it is probable that a con-
genital weakness of the bone-marrow has often to do with its
production, as in many cases a family or hereditary history of
the disease can be obtained. The condition is now regarded as
a chronic toxaemia, partly because of the clinical symptoms
and pathological appearances, partly because analogous con-
ditions can be produced experimentally by such poisons as
saponin and toluylendiamin, and partly because of the facts of
bothriocephalus anaemia. The site of production of the toxin,
or toxins, for it is possible that several may have the same effect
on the blood, is possibly not always the same, but must often
be the alimentary canal, as bothriocephalus anaemia proves.
Not all persons affected with this intestinal tapeworm contract
the disease, but only those in whose intestines the worm is dead
and decomposing or sometimes only " sick." The expulsion
of the worm puts an end to the absorption of the toxin and the
patients recover. No adequate explanation of the formation
of the toxin in the immense majority of the cases, in which there
is no tapeworm, has yet been given. It is certain that no
organism as yet known is concerned.

This toxaemia affects the marrow and through it the blood,
the gastro-intestinal apparatus and the nervous system, especi-
ally the spinal cord, in different proportions in different cases.
The effect upon the marrow is to alter the type of red corpuscle
formation, causing a reversion to the embryonic condition, in
which the nucleated red corpuscles are large (megaloblasts), and
the corpuscles in the blood formed from them are also large, are
apparently ill suited to the needs of the adult, and easily break
down, as the deposits of iron in the liver, spleen, kidneys and
marrow prove. Whether this reversion is due to an exhaustion
of the normal process or to an inhibition of it is not definitely
known. The result is that the circulating red corpuscles are
enormously diminished; it is usual to find 1,000,000 or less in
the cubic millimetre instead of the normal 5,000,000. Though
the haemoglobin is of course absolutely diminished, it is always,
in severe cases, present in relatively higher percentage than the
red corpuscles, because the average red corpuscle is larger and
contains more haemoglobin than the normal. The large
nucleated red corpuscles (megaloblasts) with which the marrow
is crowded, often appear in the blood.

Other anaemias, such 'as those known as lymphadenoma, or
Hodgkin's disease, splenic anaemia, chloroma, leucanaemia and
the anaemia pseudo-leucaemica of children, need not be described
here, as they are either rare or their occurrence or nature is still
too much under discussion.

The number and nature of the leucocytes in the blood bears
no constant or necessary relation to the number or condition
of the red corpuscles, and their variations depend
on entirely different conditions. The number in the cytosl's.
cubic millimetre is usually about 7000, but may vary
in health from 5000 to 10,000. A diminution in their number
is known as leucopenia, and is found in starvation, in some
infective diseases, as for example in typhoid fever, in malaria
and Malta fever, and in pernicious anaemia. An increase is
very much more frequent, and is known as leucocytosis, though
in this term is usually connoted a relative increase in the
proportion of the polymorphonuclear neutrophile leucocytes.

BLOOD-LETTING— BLOOMER

Leucocytosis occurs under a great variety of conditions, normally
to a slight extent during digestion, during pregnancy, and after
violent exercise, and abnormally after haemorrhage, in the course
of inflammations and many infective diseases, in malignant
disease, in such toxic states as uraemia, and after the ingestion
of nuclein and other substances. It does not occur in some
infective diseases, the most important of which are typhoid fever,
malaria, influenza, measles and uncomplicated tuberculosis.
In all cases where it is sufficiently severe and long continued,
the reserve space in the bone-marrow is filled up by the active
proliferation of the leucocytes normally found there, and is used
as a nursery for the leucocytes required in the blood. In many
cases leucocytosis is known to be associated with the defence of
the organism from injurious influences, and its amount depends
on the relation between the severity of the attack and the power
of resistance. There may be an increase in the proportions
present in the blood of lymphocytes (lymphocytosis), and of
eosinophile cells (eosinophilic,). This latter change is associated
specially with some forms of asthma, with certain skin diseases,
and with the presence of animal parasites in the body, such as
ankylostoma and filaria.

The disease in which the number of leucocytes in the blood
is greatest is leucocythaemia or leucaemia. There are two main
Leucaemia. f° rms °f tms disease, in both of which there are
anaemia, enlargement of the spleen and lymphatic
glands, or of either of them, leucocytic hypertrophy of the
bone-marrow, and deposits of leucocytes in the liver, kidney
and other organs. The difference lies in the kind of leucocytes
present in excess in the blood, blood-forming organs and
deposits in, v the tissues. In the one form these are lymphocytes,
which areAmnd in health mainly in the marrow, the blood itself,
the lymph glands and in the lymphatic tissue round the ali-
mentary canal; in the other they are the kinds of leucocytes
normally found in the bone-marrow — myelocytes, neutrophile,
basophile and eosinophile, and polymorphonuclear cells, also
neutrophile, basophile and eosinophile. The clinical course of
the two forms may differ. The first, known as lymphatic
leucaemia or lymphaemia, may be acute, and prove fatal in a
few weeks or even days with rapidly advancing anaemia, or
may be chronic and last for one or two years or longer. The
second, known as spleno-myelogenous leucaemia or myelaemia,
is almost always chronic, and may last for several years. Re-
covery does not take place, though remissions may occur. The
use of the X-rays has been found to influence the course of this
disease very favourably. The most recent view of the pathology
of the disease is that it is due to an overgrowth of the bone-
marrow leucocytes, analogous in some respects to tumour
growth and caused by the removal of some controlling mechanism
rather than by stimulation. The anaemia accompanying the
disease is due partly to the leucocyte overgrowth, which takes
up the space in the marrow belonging of right to red corpuscle
formation and interferes with it. (G.L.G.)

BLOOD-LETTING. There are certain morbid conditions when
a patient may obtain marked relief from the abstraction of a
certain amount of blood, from three or four ounces up to twenty
or even thirty in extreme cases. This may be effected by vene-
section, or the application of leeches, or more rarely by cupping
(q.v.). Unfortunately, in years gone by, blood-letting was used to
such excess, as a cure for almost every known disease, that public
opinion is now extremely opposed to it. In certain pathological
conditions, however, it brings relief and saves life when no other
means would act with sufficient promptness to take its place.

Venesection, in which the blood is usually withdrawn from
the median-basilic vein of the arm, has the disadvantage that it
can only be performed by the medical man, and that the patient's
friends are generally very much opposed to the idea. But the
public are not nearly so prejudiced against the use of leeches;
and as the nurse in charge can be instructed to use these if
occasion arises, this is the form of blood-letting usually practised
to-day. From one to twelve leeches are applied at the time,
the average leech withdrawing some two drachms of blood.
Should this prove insufficient, as much again can be abstracted

by the immediate application of hot fomentations to the wounds.
They should always be applied over some bony prominence,
that pressure may be effectively used to stop the haemorrhage
afterwards. They should never be placed over superficial veins,
or where there is much loose subcutaneous tissue. If, as is often
the case, there is any difficulty in making them bite, the skin
should be pricked at the desired spot with the point of a sterilized
needle, and the leech will then attach itself without further
trouble. Also they must be left to fall off of their own accord,
the nurse never dragging them forcibly off. If cold and pressure
fail to stop the subsequent haemorrhage, a little powdered alum
or other styptic may be inserted in the wound. The following are
the main indications for their use, though in some cases they are
better replaced by venesection. (1) For stagnation of blood on
the right side of the heart with constant dyspnoea, cyanosis, &c.
In acute lung disease, the sudden obstruction to the passage of
blood through the lungs throws such an increased strain on the
right ventricle that it may dilate to the verge of paralysis; but
by lessening the total volume of blood, the heart's work is
lightened for a time, and the danger at the moment tided over.
This is a condition frequently met with in the early stages of
acute pneumonia, pleurisy and bronchitis, when the obstruction
is in the lungs, the heart being normal. But the same result is
also met with as a result of failure of compensation with back
pressure in certain forms of heart disease (q.v.). (2) To lower
arterial tension. In the early stages of cerebral haemorrhage
(before coma has supervened), when the heart is working
vigorously and the tension of the pulse is high, a timely vene-
section may lead to arrest of the haemorrhage by lowering the
blood pressure and so giving the blood in the ruptured vessel
an opportunity to coagulate. (3) In various convulsive attacks,
as in acute uraemia.

BLOOD-MONEY, colloquially, the reward for betraying a
criminal to justice. * More strictly it is used of the money-penalty
paid in old days by a murderer to the kinsfolk of his victim.
These fines completely protected the offender from the vengeance
of the injured family. The system was common among the
Scandinavian and Teutonic races previous to the introduction of
Christianity, and a scale of payments, graduated according to
the heinousness of the crime, was fixed by laws, which further
settled who could exact the blood-mone}', and who were entitled
to share it. Homicide was not the only crime thus expiable:
blood-money could be exacted for all crimes of violence. Some
acts, such as killing any one in a church or while asleep, or within
the precincts of the royal palace, were " bot-less "; and the
death penalty was inflicted. Such a criminal was outlawed, and
his enemies could kill him wherever they found him.

BLOODSTONE, the popular name of the mineral heliotrope,
which is a variety of dark green chalcedony or plasma, with
bright red spots, splashes and streaks. The green colour is due
to a chloritic mineral; the red to haematite. Some coarse kinds
are opaque, resembling in this respect jasper, and some writers
have sought to restrict the name "bloodstone" to green jasper,
with red markings, thus making heliotrope a translucent and
bloodstone an opaque stone, but, though convenient, such a
distinction is not generally recognized. A good deal of bloodstone
comes from India, where it occurs in the Deccan traps, and is cut
and polished at Cambay. The stone is used for seals, knife-
handles and various trivial ornaments. Bloodstone is not very
widely distributed, but is found in the basaltic rocks of the Isle
of Rum in the west of Scotland, and in a few other localities.
Haematite (Gr. al/xa, blood), or native peroxide of iron, is also
sometimes called " bloodstone."

BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower), the blossom of flowering
plants, or the powdery film on the skin of fresh-picked fruit;
hence applied to the surface of newly-minted coins or to a cloudy
appearance on the varnish of painting due to moisture; also,
in metallurgy, a term used of the rough billets of iron and steel,
which have undergone a preliminary hammering or rolling, and
are ready for further working.

BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS (1818-1894), American dress-
reformer and women's rights advocate, was born at Homer, New

BLOOMFIELD— BLOOMINGTON

York, on the 27th of May 1818. After her marriage in 1840 she
established a periodical called The Lily, which had some success.
In 1849 sne t0 °k up the idea — previously originated by Mrs
Elizabeth Smith Miller — of a reform in woman's dress, and the
wearing of a short skirt, with loose trousers, gathered round the
ankles. The name of " bloomers " gradually became popularly
attached to any divided-skirt or knickerbocker dress for women.
Until her death on the 30th of December 1894 Mrs Bloomer took
a prominent part in the temperance campaign and in that for
woman's suffrage.

BLOOMFIELD, MAURICE (1855- ), American Sanskrit
scholar, was born on the 23rd of February 1855, in Bielitz,
Austrian Silesia. He went to the United States in 1867, and ten
years later graduated from Furman University, Greenville, South
Carolina. He then studied Sanskrit at Yale, under W. D.
Whitney, and at Johns Hopkins, to which university he returned
as associate professor in 1881 after a stay of two years in Berlin
and Leipzig, and soon afterwards was promoted professor of
Sanskrit and comparative philology. His papers in the American
Journal of Philology number a few in comparative linguistics,
such as those on assimilation and adaptation in congeneric
classes of words, and many valuable " Contributions to the
Interpretation of the Vedas," and he is best known as a student
of the Vedas. He translated, for Max-Miiller's Sacred Books of
the East,the Hymns of the Atharva-Veda (1897) ; contributed to
the Buhler-Kielhorn Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und
Altertumskunde the section " The Atharva-Veda and the Gopatha
Brahmana " (1899); was first to edit the Kaucika-Sutra (1890),
and in 1907 published, in the Harvard Oriental series, A Vedic
Concordance. In 1905 he published Cerberus, the Dog of Hades, a
study in comparative mythology.

BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT (1766-1823), English poet, was born
of humble parents at the village of Honington, Suffolk, on the 3rd
of December 1766. He was apprenticed at the age of eleven to a
farmer, but he was too small and frail for field labour, and four
years later he came to London to work for a shoemaker. The
poem that made his reputation, The Farmer's Boy, was written
in a garret in Bell Alley. The manuscript, declined by several
publishers, fell into the hands of Capell Lofft, who arranged for
its publication with woodcuts by Bewick in 1800. The success of
the poem was remarkable, over 25,000 copies being sold in the
next two years. His reputation was increased by the appearance
of his Rural Tales (1802), News from the Farm (1804), Wild
Flowers (1806) and The Banks of the Wye (1811). Influential
friends attempted to provide for Bloomfield, but ill-health and
possibly faults of temperament prevented the success of these
efforts, and the poet died in poverty at Shefford, Bedfordshire,
on the 19th of August 1823. His Remains in Poetry and Verse
appeared in 1824.

BLOOMFIELD, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
about 12 m. W. of New York, and directly adjoining the city of
Newark on the N. Pop. (1900) 9668, of whom 2267 were foreign-
born; (1905, statecensus) 11,668; (1910), 15,070. Area, 5 -42 sq.m.
Bloomfield is served by the Erie, and the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna & Western railways, and by several electric lines connect-
ing with Newark, Montclair, Orange, East Orange and other
neighbouring places. It is a residential suburb of Newark and
New York, is the seat of a German theological school (Presby-
terian, 1869) and has the Jarvie Memorial library (1902). There
is a Central Green, and in 1908 land was acquired for another
park. Among the town's manufactures are silk and woollen
goods, paper, electric elevators, electric lamps, rubber goods,
safety pins, hats, cream separators, brushes and novelties. The
value of the town's factory products increased from $3,370,924
in 1900 to $4,645,483 in 1905, or 37-8%. First settled about
1670-1675 by the Dutch and by New Englanders from the
Newark colony, Bloomfield was long a part of Newark, the
principal settlement at first being known as Wardsesson. In
1796 it was named Bloomfield in honour of General Joseph
Bloomfield (1753-1823), who served (1775-1778) in the War of
American Independence, reaching the rank of major, was
governor of New Jersey in 1801-1802 and 1803-1812, brigadier-

general in the United States army during the War of 181 2, and
a Democratic representative in Congress from 181 7 to 1821.
The township of Bloomfield was incorporated in 181 2. From it
were subsequently set off Belleville (1839), Montclair (1868) and
Glen Ridge (1895).

BLOOMINGTON, a city and the county-seat of McLean
county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the central part of the state, about
125 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 20,484; (1900) 23,286,
of whom 361 1 were foreign-born, there being a large German
element; (1910 census) 25,768. The city is served by the
Chicago & Alton, the Illinois Central, the Cleveland, Chicago,
Cincinnati & St Louis, and the Lake Erie & Western railways,
and by electric inter-urban lines. Bloomington is the seat of
the Illinois Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal, co-
educational, founded in 1850), which comprises a college of
liberal arts, an academy, a college of law, a college of music and
a school of oratory, and in 1907 had 1350 students. In the town
of Normal (pop. in 1900, 3795), 2 m. north of Bloomington, are
the Illinois State Normal University (opened at Bloomington
in 1857 and removed to its present site in i860), one of the first
normal schools in the Middle West, and the state soldiers'
orphans' home (1869). Bloomington has a public library, and
Franklin and Miller parks; among its principal buildings are
the court house, built of marble, and the Y.M.C.A. building.
Among the manufacturing establishments are foundries arid
machine shops, including the large shops of the Chicago & Alton
railway, slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, flour
and grist mills, printing and publishing establishments, a caramel
factory and lumber factories. The value of the city's factory
products increased from $3,011,899 in 1900 to $5,777,000 in
1905, or 91-8%. There are valuable coal mines Jfc and near
the city, and the city is situated in a fine farming region.
Bloomington derives its name from Blooming Grove, a small
forest which was crossed by the trails leading from the Galena
lead mines to Southern Illinois, from Lake Michigan to St Louis,
and from the Eastern to the far Western states. The first settle-
ment was made in 1822, but the town was not formally founded
until 1 83 1, when it became the county-seat of McLean county.
The first city charter was obtained in 1850, and in 1857 the
public school system was established. In 1856 Bloomington
was the meeting place of a state convention called by the Illinois
editors who were opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (see
Decatur). This was the first convention of the Republican
party in Illinois; among the delegates were Abraham Lincoln,
Richard Yates, John M. Palmer and Owen Lovejoy. The city
has been the residence of a number of prominent men, including
David Davis (1815-1886), an associate justice of the United
States Supreme Court in 1862-1877, a member of the United
States Senate in 1877-1883, and president pro tempore of the
Senate in 1881-1883; Governor John M. Hamilton (184 7-1905),
Governor Joseph W. Fifer (b. 1840); and Adlai Ewing
Stevenson (b. 1835), a Democratic representative in Congress in
1875-1877 and 1879-1881, and vice-president of the United
States in 1893-1897. Bloomington's prosperity increased after
1867, when coal was first successfully mined in the vicinity.

In the Transactions of the Illinois State Historical Society for
1905 may be found a paper, " The Bloomington Convention of 1856
and Those Who Participated in it."

BLOOMINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Monroe county,
Indiana, U.S.A., about 45 m. S. by W. of Indianapolis. Pop.
(1890) 4018; (1900) 6460, including 396 negroes; (1910) 8838.
It is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville and the
Indianapolis Southern (Illinois Central) railways. Bloomington
is the seat of the Indiana University (co-educational since 1868),
established as a state seminary in 1820, and as Indiana College
in 1828, and chartered as the State university in 1838; in 1907-
1908 it had 80 instructors, 2051 students, and a library of 65,000
volumes; its school of law was established in 1842, suspended
in 1877 and re-established in 1889; its school of medicine was
established in 1903; but most of the medical course is given
in Indianapolis; a graduate school was organized in 1904; and
a summer school (or summer term of eleven weeks) was first

BLOOMSBURG— BLOUNT, SIR T. P.

held in 1905. Dr David Starr Jordan was the first president of
the university in 1885-1891, when it was thoroughly reorganized
and its curriculum put on the basis of major subjects and depart-
ments. The university's biological station is on Winona Lake,
Kosciusko county. Among the manufactures of Bloomington
are furniture and wooden ware. There are valuable limestone
quarries in the vicinity. The city was first settled about 1818.

BLOOMSBURG, a town and the county-seat of Columbia
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on Fishing Creek, 2 m. from its
confluence with the Susquehanna, and about 40 m. S.W. of
Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1890) 4635; (1900) 6170 (213 foreign-
born); (1910) 7413. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna
& Western, the Philadelphia & Reading, and the Bloomsburg
& Sullivan and the Susquehanna, Bloomsburg & Berwick
railways (the last two only 30 m. and 39 m. long respectively);
and is connected with Berwick, Catawissa and Danville by
electric lines. The town is built on a bluff commanding ex-
tensive views. Among the manufactures of Bloomsburg are
railway cars, carriages, silk and woollen goods, furniture, carpets,
wire-drawing machines and gun carriages. Iron ore was for-
merly obtained from the neighbouring hills. The town is the
seat of a state normal school, established as such in 1869.
Bloomsburg was laid out as a town in 1802, became the county-
seat in 1846, and was incorporated in 1870.

BLOUNT, CHARLES (1654-1693), English author, was born
at Upper Holloway on the 27th of April 1654. His father,
Sir Henry Blount (1602-1682), was the author of a Voyage to
the Levant, describing his own travels. He gave his son a careful
education, and is said to have helped him in his Anima Mundi;
or An Historical Narration of the Opinions of the Antients concern-
ing Man's Soul after his Life, according to unenlightened Nature
(1679), which gave great offence by the sceptical views expressed
in it. It was suppressed by order of the bishop of London, and
even burnt by some over-zealous official, but a re-issue was
permitted. Blount was an admirer of Hobbes, and published
his "Last Sayings" (1679), a pamphlet consisting of extracts
from The Leviathan. Great is Diana of the Ephesians, or the
Original of Idolatry, together with the Political Institution of the
Gentiles' Sacrifices (1680) attracted severe criticism on the ground
that in deprecating the evils of priestcraft Blount was attacking
Christianity itself. His best-known book, The Two First Books
of Philostratus concerning the Life of Apollonius Tyaneus , , .
(1680), is said to have been prohibited in 1693, chiefly on account
of the notes, which are stated by Bayle (note, s.v. Apollonius) to
have been taken mainly from a MS. of Lord Herbert of Cherbury.
Blount contributed materially to the removal of the restrictions
on the freedom of the press, with two pamphlets (1693) by
" Philopatris," mainly derived from Milton's Areopagitica.
He also laid a successful trap for the censor, Edmund Bohun.
Under the name of " Junius Brutus " he wrote a pamphlet
entitled " King William and Queen Mary Conquerors." The
title-page set forth the theory of the justice of title by conquest,
which Blount knew to be agreeable to Bohun. It was duly
licensed, but was ordered by the House of Commons to be
burnt by the common hangman, as being diametrically opposed
to the attitude of William's government on the subject. These
proceedings showed the futility of the censorship, and hastened
its overthrow.

Blount had fallen in love with his deceased wife's sister, and,
in despair of overcoming her scruples as to the legality of such
a marriage, shot himself in the head. He survived for some
time, refusing help except from his sister-in-law. Alexander
Pope asserted (Epilogue to the Satires, Note, i. 124) that he
wounded himself in the arm, pretending to kill himself, and that
the result was fatal contrary to his expectations. He died in
August 1693.

Shortly before his death a collection of his pamphlets and private
papers was printed with a preface by Charles Gildon, under the title
of the Oracles of Reason. His Miscellaneous Works (1695) is a fuller
edition by the same editor.

BLOUNT (or Blunt), EDWARD (b. 1565?), the printer, in
conjunction with Isaac Jaggard, of Mr William Shakespeares

Comedies, Histories and Tragedies. Published according to the
true Originall Copies (1623), usually known as the first folio of
Shakespeare. It was produced under the direction of John
Heming (d. 1630) and Henry Condell (d. 1627), both of whom
had been Shakespeare's colleagues at the Globe theatre, but as
Blount combined the functions of printer and editor on other
occasions, it is fair to conjecture that he to some extent edited
the first folio. The Stationers' Register states that he was the
son of Ralph Blount or Blunt, merchant tailor of London, and
apprenticed himself in 1578 for ten years to William Ponsonby, a
stationer. He became a freeman of the Stationers' Company in
1588. Among the most important of his publications are
Giovanni Florio's Italian-English dictionary and his translation
of Montaigne, Marlowe's Hero and Leander, and the Sixe Court
Comedies of John Lyly. He himself translated Ars Aulica, or the
Courtier's Arte (1607) from the Italian of Lorenzo Ducci, and
Christian Policie (1632) from the Spanish of Juan de Santa
Maria.

BLOUNT, THOMAS (1618-1679), English antiquarian, was the
son of one Myles Blount, of Orleton in Herefordshire. He was
born at Bordesley, Worcestershire. Few details of his life are
known. It appears that he was called to the bar at the Inner
Temple, but, beingazealous Roman Catholic, his religioninterfered
considerably with the practice of his profession. Retiring to his
estate at Orleton, he devoted himself to the study of the law as
an amateur, and also read widely in other branches of knowledge.
He died at Orleton on the 26th of December 1679. His principal
works are Glossographia; or, a dictionary interpreting the hard
•words of whatsoever language, now used in our refined English
tongue (1656, reprinted in 1707), which went through several
editions and remains most amusing and instructive reading;
Nomolexicon: a law dictionary interpreting such difficult and
obscure words and terms as are found either in our common or
statute, ancient or modern lawes (1670; third edition, with
additions by W. Nelson, 1717); and Fragmenta Antiquitatis:
Ancient Tenures of land, and jocular customs of some mannors
(1679; enlarged by J. Beckwith and republished, with additions
by H. M. Beckwith, in 1815; again revised and enlarged by
W. C. Hazlitt, 1874). Blount's Boscobel (1651), giving an account
of Charles II.'s preservation after Worcester, with the addition of
the king's own account dictated to Pepys, has been edited with
a bibliography by C. G. Thomas (1894).

BLOUNT, SIR THOMAS POPE (1649-1697), English author,
eldest son of Sir Henry Blount and brother of Charles Blount
iff. v.), was born at Upper Holloway on the 12th of September
1649. He succeeded to the estate of Tittenhanger on his mother's
death in 1678, and in the following year was created a baronet.
He represented the borough of St Albans in the two last parlia-
ments of Charles II. and was knight of the shire from the revolu-
tion till his death. He married Jane, daughter of Sir Henry
Caesar, by whom he had five sons and nine daughters. He died
at Tittenhanger on the 30th of June 1697. His Censura cele-
brorum authorum sive iractalus in quo varia virorum doctorum de
clarissimis cujusque seculi scriptoribus judicia traduntur (1690)
was originally compiled for Blount's own use, and is a dictionary
in chronological order of what various eminent writers have said
about one another. This necessarily involved enormous labour
in Blount's time. It was published at Geneva in 1694 with all
the quotations from modern languages translated into Latin,
and again in 17 10. His other works are A Natural History,
containing many not common observations extracted out of the best
modern writers (1693), De re poetica, or remarks upon Poetry, with
Characters and Censures of the most considerable Poets . . .(1694),
and Essays on Several Occasions (1692). It is on this last work
that his claims to be regarded as an original writer rest. The
essays deal with the perversion of learning, a comparison between
the ancients and the moderns (to the advantage of the latter),
the education of children, and kindred topics. In the third
edition (1697) he added an eighth essay, on religion, in which
he deprecated the multiplication of ceremonies. He displays
throughout a hatred of pedantry and convention, which makes
his book still interesting.

BLOUNT, W.— BLOW-GUN

See A. Kippis, Biographia Britannica (1780), vol. ii. For an
account of Blount's family see Robert Clutterbuck. History and
Antiquities of the County of Hertford (1815), vol. i. pp. 207-212.

BLOUNT, WILLIAM (1 749-1800), American politician, was
born in Bertie county, North Carolina, on the 26th of March 1 749.
He was a member of the Continental Congress in 1 783-1 784 and
again in 1786-1787, of the constitutional convention at Phil-
adelphia in 1787, and of the state convention which ratified the
Federal constitution for North Carolina in 1789. From 1790
until 1796 he was, by President Washington's appointment,
governor of the " Territory South of the Ohio River," created
out of land ceded to the national government by North Carolina
in 1789. He was also during this period the superintendent of
Indian affairs for this part of the country. In 1791 he laid out
Knoxville (Tennessee) as the seat of government. He presided
over the constitutional convention of Tennessee in 1796, and, on
the state being admitted to the Union, became one of its first
representatives in the United States Senate. In 1797 his
connexion became known with a scheme, since called " Blount's
Conspiracy," which provided for the co-operation of the American
frontiersmen, assisted by Indians, and an English force, in the
seizure on behalf of Great Britain of the Floridas and Louisiana,
then owned by Spain, with which power England was then at
war. As this scheme, if carried out, involved the corrupting of
two officials of the United States, an Indian agent and an
interpreter, a breach of the neutrality of the United States, and
the breach of Article V. of the treaty of San Lorenzo el Real
(signed on the 27th of October 1795) between the United States
and Spain, by which each power agreed not to incite the Indians
to attack the other, Blount was impeached by the House of
Representatives on the 7th of July 1797, and on the following
day was formally expelled from the Senate for " having been
guilty of high misdemeanor, entirely inconsistent with his public
trust and duty as a senator." On the 29th of January 1798
articles of impeachment were adopted by the House of Repre-
sentatives. On the 14th of January 1799, however, the Senate,
sitting as a court of impeachment, decided that it had no jurisdic-
tion, Blount not then being a member of the Senate, and, in the
Senate's opinion, not having been, even as a member, a civil
officer of the United States, within the meaning of the con-
stitution. The case is significant as being the first case of
impeachment brought before the United States Senate. " In a
legal point of view, all that the case decides is that a senator of
the United States who has been expelled from his seat is not after
such expulsion subject to impeachment " (Francis Wharton, State
Trials). In effect, however, it also decided that a member of
Congress was not in the meaning of the constitution a civil officer
of the United States and therefore could not be impeached.
The " conspiracy " was disavowed by the British government,
which, however, seems to have secretly favoured it. Blount
was enthusiastically supported by his constituents, and upon his
return to Tennessee was made a member and the presiding officer
of the state senate. He died at Knoxville on the 21st of March
1800.

For a defence of Blount, see General Marcus J. Wright's Account
of the Life and Services of William Blount (Washington, D. C, 1884).

BLOUSE, a word (taken from the French) used for any loosely
fitting bodice belted at the waist. In France it meant originally
the loose upper garment of linen or cotton, generally blue, worn
by French workmen to preserve their clothing, and, by trans-
ference, the workman himself.

BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708), English musical composer, was
born in 1648, probably at North Collingham in Nottinghamshire.
He became a chorister of the chapel royal, and distinguished
himself by his proficiency in music; he composed several
anthems at an unusually early age, including Lord, Thou hast
been our refuge; Lord, rebuke me not; and the so-called " club
anthem," / will always give thanks, the last in collaboration with
Pelham Humphrey and William Turner, either in honour of a
victory over the Dutch in 1665, or — more probably — simply to
commemorate the friendly intercourse of the three choristers.
To this time also belongs the composition of a two-part setting

of Herrick's Goe, perjtir'd man, written at the request of Charles
II. to imitate Carissimi's Bite, cieli. In ^669 Blow became
organist of Westminster Abbey. In 1673 he was made a gentle-
man of the chapel royal, and in the September of this year he
was married to Elizabeth Braddock, who died in childbirth ten
years later. Blow, who by the year 1678 was a doctor of music,
was named in 1685 one of the private musicians of James II.
Between 1680 and 1687 he wrote the only stage composition by
him of which any record survives, the Masque for the Entertain-
ment of the King: Venus and Adonis. In this Mary Davies
played the part of Venus, and her daughter by Charles II., Lady
Mary Tudor, appeared as Cupid. In 1687 he became master of
the choir of St Paul's church; in 1695 he was elected organist of
St Margaret's, Westminster, and is said to have resumed his post
as organist of Westminster Abbey, from which in 1680 he had
retired or been dismissed to make way for Purccll. In 1699 he
was appointed to the newly created post of composer to the
chapel royal. Fourteen services and more than a hundred
anthems by Blow are extant. In addition to his purely ecclesi-
astical music Blow wrote Great sir, the joy of all our hearts, an ode
for New Year's day 1681-1682; similar compositions for 1683,
1686, 1687, 1688, 1689, 1693 (?), 1694 and 1700; odes, &c, for
the celebration of St Cecilia's day for 1684, 1691, 1695 and 1700;
for the coronation of James II. two anthems, Behold, God, our
Defender, and God spake sometimes in visions; some harpsichord
pieces for the second part of Playford's Musick's Handmaid
(1689); Epicedium for Queen Mary (1695); Ode on the Death of
Purcell (1696). In 1700 he published his Amphion Anglicus, a
collection of pieces of music for one, two, three and four voices,
with a figured-bass accompaniment. A famous page in Burney's
History of Music is devoted to illustrations of " Dr Blow's
Crudities," most of which only show the meritorious if immature
efforts in expression characteristic of English music at the time,
while some of them (where Burney says " Here we are lost ")
are really excellent. Blow died on the 1st of October 1708 at his
house in Broad Sanctuary, and was buried in the north aisle of
Westminster Abbey.

BLOW-GUN, a weapon consisting of a long tube, through
which, by blowing with the mouth, arrows or other missiles can
be shot accurately to a considerable distance. Blow-guns are
used both in warefare and the chase by the South American
Indian tribes inhabiting the region between the Amazon and
Orinoco rivers, and by the Dyaks of Borneo. In the 18th century
they were also known to certain North American Indians,
especially the Choctaws and Cherokees of the lower Mississippi.
Captain Bossu, in his Travels through Louisiana (1756), says of
the Choctaws: " They are very expert in shooting with an instru-
ment made of reeds about 7 ft. long, into which they put a little
arrow feathered with the wool of the thistle (wild cotton?)."
The blow-guns of the South American Indians differ in style and
workmanship. That of the Macusis of Guiana, called pucuna, is
the most perfect. It is made of two tubes, the inner of which,
called oorah, is a light reed | in. in diameter which often grows
to a length of 1 5 ft. without a joint. This is enclosed, for protec-
tion and solidity, in an outer tube of a variety of palm (Iriartella
setigera). The mouth-piece is made of a circlet of silk-grass, and
the farther end is feruled with a kind of nut, forming a sight. A
rear open sight is formed of two teeth of a small rodent. The
length of the pucuna is about 11 ft. and its weight i| ft>. The
arrows, which are from 12 to 18 in. long and very slender, are
made of ribs of the cocorite palm-leaf. They are usually feathered
with a tuft of wild cotton, but some have in place of the cotton a
thin strip of bark curled into a cone, which, when the shooter
blows into the pucuna, expands and completely fills the tube,
thus avoiding windage. Another kind of arrow is furnished
with fibres of bark fixed along the shaft, imparting a rotary
motion to the missile, a primitive example of the theory of the
rifle. The arrows used in Peru are only a few inches long and as
thin as fine knitting-needles. All South American blow-gun
arrows are steeped in poison. The natives shoot very accurately
with the pucuna at distances up to 50 or 60 yds.

The blow-gun of the Borneo Dyaks, called sumpitan, is from

BLOWITZ — BLOWPIPE

6 to 7 ft. long and made of ironwood. The bore, of \ in., is made
with, a long pointed piece of iron. At the muzzle a small iron
hook is affixed, to serve as a sight, as well as a spear-head like a
bayonet and for the same purpose. The arrows used with the
sumpitan are about 10 in. long, pointed with fish-teeth, and
feathered with pith. They are also envenomed with poison.

Poisoned arrows are also used by the natives of the Philippine
island of Mindanao, whose blow-pipes, from 3 to 4 ft. long and
made of bamboo, are often richly ornamented and even jewelled.

The principle of the blow-gun is, of course, the same as that
of the common " pea-shooter."

See Sport with Rod and Gun in American Woods and Waters, by
A. M. Mayer, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1884) ; Wanderings in South
America, &c, by Charles Waterton (London, 1828); The Head
Hunters of Borneo, by Carl Bock (London, 1881).

BLOWITZ, HENRI GEORGES STEPHAN ADOLPHE DE
(1825-1903), Anglo-French journalist, was born, according to the
account given in his memoirs, at his father's chateau in Bohemia
on the 28th of December 1825. At the age of fifteen he left home,
and travelled over Europe for some years in company with a
young professor of philology, acquiring a thorough knowledge
of French, German and Italian and a mixed general education.
The finances of his family becoming straitened, young Blowitz
was on the point of starting to seek his fortune in America, when
he became acquainted in Paris with M. de Falloux, minister of
public instruction, who appointed him professor of foreign
languages at the Tours Lycee, whence, after some years, he was
transferred to the Marseilles Lycee. After marrying in 1859 he
resigned his professorship, but remained at Marseilles, devoting
himself to literature and politics. In 1869 information which he
supplied to a legitimist newspaper at Marseilles with regard to
the candidature of M. de Lesseps as deputy for that city led to
a demand for his expulsion from France. He was, however,
allowed to remain, but had to retire to the country. In 1870 his
predictions of the approaching fall of the Empire caused the
demand for his expulsion to be renewed. While his case was
under discussion the battle of Sedan was fought, and Blowitz
effectually ingratiated himself with the authorities by applying
for naturalization as a French subject. Once naturalized, he
returned to Marseilles, where he was fortunately able to render
considerable service to Thiers, who subsequently employed him
in collecting information at Versailles, and when this work was
finished offered him the French consulship at Riga. Blowitz was
on the point of accepting this post when Laurence Oliphant,
then Paris correspondent of The Times, for which Blowitz had
already done some occasional work, asked him to act as his
regular assistant for a time, Frederick Hardman, the other Paris
correspondent of The Times, being absent. Blowitz accepted
the offer, and when, later on, Oliphant was succeeded by Hardman
he remained as assistant correspondent. In 1873 Hardman died,
and Blowitz became chief Paris correspondent to The Times.
In this capacity he soon became famous in the world of journalism
and diplomacy. In 1875 the due de Decazes, then French
foreign minister, showed Blowitz a confidential despatch from
the French ambassador in Berlin (in which the latter warned his
government that Germany was contemplating an attack on
France), and requested the correspondent to expose the German
designs in The Times. The publication of the facts effectually
aroused European public opinion, and any such intention was
immediately thwarted. Blowitz's most sensational journalistic
feat was achieved in 1878, when his enterprise enabled The
Times to publish the whole text of the treaty of Berlin at the
actual moment that the treaty was being signed in Germany.
In 1877 and again in 1888 Blowitz rendered considerable service
to the French government by his exposure of internal designs
upon the Republic. He died on the 18th of January 1903.
My Memoirs, by H. S. de Blowitz, was published in 1903.
BLOWPIPE, in the arts and chemistry, a tube for directing
a jet of air into a fire or into the flame of a lamp or gas jet, for
the purpose of producing a high temperature by accelerating
the combustion. The blowpipe has been in common use from
the earliest times for soldering metals and working glass, but
its introduction into systematic chemical analysis is to be

ascribed to A. F. Cronstedt, and not to Anton Swab, as has been
maintained (see J. Landauer, Ber. 26, p. 898). The first work
on this application of the blowpipe was by G. v. Engestrom,
and was published in 1770 as an appendix to a treatise on
mineralogy. Its application has been variously improved at
the hands of T. O. Bergman, J. G. Gahn, J. J. Berzelius,
C. F. Plattner and others, but more especially by the two last-
named chemists.

The simplest and oldest form of blowpipe is a conical brass
tube, about 7 in. in length, curved at the small end into a right
angle, and terminating in a small round orifice, which is applied
to the flame, while the larger end is applied to the mouth.
Where the blast has to be kept up for only a few seconds, this
instrument is quite serviceable, but in longer chemical operations
inconvenience arises from the condensation of moisture exhaled
by the lungs in the tube. Hence most blowpipes are now made
with a cavity for retaining the moisture. Cronstedt placed a
bulb in the centre of his blowpipe. Dr Joseph Black's instru-
ment consists of a conical tube of tin plate, with a small brass
tube, supporting the nozzle, inserted near the wider end, and
a mouth-piece at the narrow end.

The sizes of orifice recommended by Plattner are 0-4 and
0-5 mm. A trumpet mouth-piece is recommended from the
support it gives to the cheeks when inflated. The mode of
blowing is peculiar, and requires some practice; an uninterrupted
blast is kept up by the muscular action of the cheeks, while the
ordinary respiration goes on through the nostrils.

If the flame of a candle or lamp be closely examined, it will
be seen to consist of four parts — (a) a deep blue ring at the base,
(b) a dark cone in the centre, (c) a luminous portion round this,
and (d) an exterior pale blue envelope (see Flame). In blow-
pipe work only two of these four parts are made use of, viz.
the pale envelope, for oxidation, and the luminous portion, for
reduction. To obtain a good oxidizing flame, the blowpipe is held
with its nozzle inserted in the edge of the flame close over the
level of the wick, and blown into gently and evenly. A conical
jet is thus produced, consisting of an inner cone, with an outer
one commencing near its apex — the former, corresponding to
(a) in the free flame, blue and well defined; the latter corre-
sponding to id), pale blue and vague. The heat is greatest just
beyond the point of the inner cone, combustion being there
most complete. Oxidation is better effected (if a very high
temperature be not required) the farther the substance is from
the apex of the inner cone, for the air has thus freer access. To
obtain a good reducing flame (in which the combustible matter,
very hot, but not yet burned, is disposed to take oxygen from
any compound containing it), the nozzle, with smaller orifice,
should just touch the flame at a point higher above the wick,
and a somewhat weaker current of air should be blown. The
flame then appears as a long, narrow, luminous cone, the end
being enveloped by a dimly visible portion of flame correspond-
ing to that which surrounds the free flame, while there is also a
dark nucleus about the wick. The substance to be reduced is
brought into the luminous portion, where the reducing power
is strongest.

Various materials are used as supports for substances in the
blowpipe flame; the principal are charcoal, platinum and glass
or porcelain. Charcoal is valuable for its infusibility and low
conductivity for heat (allowing substances to be strongly heated
upon it), and for its powerful reducing properties; so that it is
chiefly employed in testing the fusibility of minerals and in
reduction. The best kind of charcoal is that of close-grained
pine or alder; it is cut in short prisms, having a flat smooth
surface at right angles to the rings of growth. In this a shallow
hole is made for receiving the substance to be held in the flame.
Gas-carbon is sometimes used, since it is more permanent in
the flame than wood charcoal. Platinum is employed in oxi-
dizing processes, and in the fusion of substances with fluxes;
also in observing the colouring effect of substances on the blow-
pipe flame (which effect is apt to be somewhat masked by char-
coal). Most commonly it is used in the form of wire, with a
small bend or loop at the end.

9°

BLUCHER— BLUE

The mouth blowpipe is unsuitable for the production of a
large flame, and cannot be used for any lengthy operations;
hence recourse must be made to types in which the air-blast
is occasioned by mechanical means. The laboratory form in
common use consists of a bellows worked by either hand or
foot, and a special type of gas burner formed of two concentric
tubes, one conveying the blast, the other the gas; the supply
of air and gas being regulated by stopcocks. The hot blast blow-
pipe of T. Fletcher, in which the blast is heated by passing
through a copper coil heated by a separate burner, is only of
service when a pointed flame of a fairly high temperature is
required. Blowpipes in which oxygen is used as the blast
have been manufactured by Fletcher, Russell & Co., and have
proved of great service in conducting fusions which require a
temperature above that yielded by the air-blowpipe.

For the applications of the blowpipe in chemical analysis see
Chemistry : Analytical.

BLUCHER, GEEHARD LEBERECHT VON (1742-1819),
Prussian general field marshal, prince of Wahlstadt in Silesia,
was born at Rostock on the 16th of December 1742. In his
fourteenth year he entered the service of Sweden, and in the
Pomeranian campaign of 1760 he was taken prisoner by the
Prussians. He was persuaded by his captors to enter the
Prussian service. He took part in the later battles of the Seven
Years' War, and as a hussar officer gained much experience of
light cavalry work. In peace, however, his ardent spirit led him
into excesses of all kinds, and being passed over for promotion
he sent in his resignation, to which Frederick replied, " Captain
Bliicher can take himself to the devil " (1773). He now settled
down to farming, and in fifteen years he had acquired an honour-
able independence. But he was unable to return to the army until
after the death of Frederick the Great. He was then reinstated
as major in his old regiment, the Red Hussars. He took part
in the expedition to Holland in 1787, and in the following year
became lieutenant-colonel. In 1789 he received the order pour
le merile, and in 1794 he became colonel of the Red Hussars. In
1793 and 1794 he distinguished himself in cavalry actions against
the French, and for his success at Kirrweiler he was made a
major-general. In 1801 he was promoted lieutenant-general.

He was one of the leaders of the war party in Prussia in
1805-1806, and served as a cavalry general in the disastrous
campaign of the latter year. At Auerstadt Bliicher repeatedly
charged at the head of the Prussian cavalry, but without success.
In the retreat of the broken armies he commanded the rearguard
of Prince Hohenlohe's corps, and upon the capitulation of the
main body of Prenzlau he carried off a remnant of the Prussian
army to the northward, and in the neighbourhood of Liibeck
he fought a series of combats, which, however, ended in his
being forced to surrender at Ratkau (November 7, 1806). His
adversaries testified in his capitulation that it was caused by
" want of provisions and ammunition." He was soon exchanged
for General Victor, and was actively employed in Pomerania,
at Berlin, and at Konigsberg until the conclusion of the war.
After the war, Bliicher was looked upon as the natural leader
of the patriot party, with which he was in close touch during
the period of Napoleonic domination. His hopes of an alliance
with Austria in the war of 1809 were disappointed. In this
year he was made general of cavalry. In 181 2 he expressed
himself so openly on the alliance of Russia with France that he
was recalled from his military governorship of Pomerania and
virtually banished from the court.

When at last the Napoleonic domination was ended by the
outbreak of the War of Liberation in 1813, Bliicher of course
was at once placed in high command, and he was present at
Liitzen and Bautzen. During the armistice he worked at the
organization of the Prussian forces, and when the war was
resumed Bliicher became commander-in-chief of the Army of
Silesia, with Gneisenau and Muffling as his principal staff officers,
and 40,000 Prussians and 50,000 Russians under his control.
The autumn campaign of 1813 will be found described in the
article Napoleonic Campaigns, and it will here be sufficient
to say that the most conspicuous military quality displayed by

Bliicher was his unrelenting energy. The irresolution and
divergence of interests usual in allied armies found in him a
restless opponent, and the knowledge that if he could not induce
others to co-operate he was prepared to attempt the task in hand
by himself often caused other generals to follow his lead. He
defeated Marshal Macdonald at the Katzbach, and by his victory
over Marmont at Mockern led the way to the decisive overthrow
of Napoleon at Leipzig, which place was stormed by Bliicher's
own army on the evening of the last day of the battle. On the
day of Mockern (October 16, 1813) Bliicher was made a general
field marshal, and after the victory he pursued the routed French
with his accustomed energy. In the winter of 1813-1814
Bliicher, with his chief staff officers, was mainly instrumental
in inducing the allied sovereigns to carry the war into France
itself. The combat of Brienne and the battle of La Rothiere
were the chief incidents of the first stage of the celebrated
campaign of 1814, and they were quickly followed by the victories
of Napoleon over Bliicher at Champaubert, Vauxchamps and
Montmirail. But the courage of the Prussian leader was un-
diminished, and his great victory of Laon (March 9 to 10)
practically decided the fate of the campaign. After this Bliicher
infused some of his own energy into the operations of Prince
Schwarzenberg's Army of Bohemia, and at last this army and
the Army of Silesia marched in one body direct upon Paris.
The victory of Montmartre, the entry of the allies into the French
capital, and the overthrow of the First Empire were the direct
consequences. Bliicher was disposed to make a severe retaliation
upon Paris for the calamities that Prussia had suffered from
the armies of France had not the allied commanders intervened
to prevent it. Blowing up the bridge of Jena was said to be one
of his contemplated acts. On the 3rd of June 1814 he was made
prince of Wahlstadt (in Silesia on the Katzbach battlefield),
and soon afterwards he paid a visit to England, being received
everywhere with the greatest enthusiasm.

After the peace he retired to Silesia, but the return of Napoleon
soon called him to further service. He was put in command of
the Army of the Lower Rhine with General Gneisenau as his
chief of staff (see Waterloo Campaign). In the campaign of
181 5 the Prussians sustained a very severe defeat at the outset
at Ligny (June 16), in the course of which the old field marshal
was ridden over by cavalry charges, his life being saved only
by the devotion of his aide-de-camp, Count Nostitz. He was
unable to resume command for some hours, and Gneisenau drew
off the defeated army. The relations of the Prussian and the
English headquarters were at this time very complicated, and it
is uncertain whether Bliicher himself was responsible for the
daring resolution to march to Wellington's assistance. This
was in fact done, and after an incredibly severe march Bliicher's
army intervened with decisive and crushing effect in the battle
of Waterloo. The great victory was converted into a success
absolutely decisive of the war by the relentless pursuit of the
Prussians, and the allies re-entered Paris on the 7th of July.
Prince Bliicher remained in the French capital for some months,
but his age and infirmities compelled him to retire to his Silesian
residence at Krieblowitz, where he died on the 12th of September
1819, aged seventy-seven. He retained to the end of his life
that wildness of character and proneness to excesses which had
caused his dismissal from the army in his youth, but however
they may be regarded, these faults sprang always from the ardent
and vivid temperament which made Bliicher a dashing leader of
horse. The qualities which made him a great general were his
patriotism and the hatred of French domination which inspired
every success of the War of Liberation. He was twice married,
and had, by his first marriage, two sons and a daughter. Statues
were erected to his memory at Berlin, Breslau and Rostock.

Of the various lives of Prince Bliicher, that by Varnhagen von
Ense (1827) is the most important. His war diaries of 1793-1794,
together with a memoir (written in 1805) on the subject of a national
army, were edited by Golz and Ribbentrop (Campagne Journal
1793-4 von Gl. Lt. v. Bliicher).

BLUE (common in different forms to most European
languages), the name of a colour, used in many colloquial

BLUEBEARD— BLUFF

phrases. From the fact of various parties, political and other,
having adopted the colour blue as their badge, various classes of
people have come to be known as " blue " or " blues"; thus
" true blue " meant originally a staunch Presbyterian, the
Covenanters having adopted blue as their colour as opposed to
red, the royal colour; similarly, in the navy, there was in the
18th century a " Blue Squadron," Nelson being at one time
" Rear-Admiral of the Blue "; again, in 1690, the Royal Horse
Guards were called the "Blues" from their blue uniforms, or,
from their leader, the earl of Oxford, the "Oxford Blues";
also, from the blue ribbon worn by the knights of the Garter
comes the use of the phrase as the highest mark of distinction
that can be worn, especially applied on the turf to the winning
of the Derby. The " blue Peter " is a rectangular blue flag, with
a white square in the centre, hoisted at the top of the foremast
as a signal that a vessel is about to leave port. At Oxford and
Cambridge a man who represents his university in certain
athletic sports is called a " blue " from the " colours " he is
then entitled to wear, dark blue for Oxford and light blue for
Cambridge.

BLUEBEARD, the monster of Charles Perrault's tale of Barbe
Bleue, who murdered his wives and hid their bodies in a locked
room. Perrault's tale was first printed in his Histoires et contes
du terns passe (1697). The essentials of the story — Bluebeard's
prohibition to his wife to open a certain door during his absence,
her disobedience, her discovery of a gruesome secret, and her
timely rescue from death — are to be found in other folklore
stories, none of which, however, has attained the fame of
Bluebeard. A close parallel exists in an Esthonian legend of a
husband who had already killed eleven wives, and was prevented
from killing the twelfth, who had opened a secret room, by a
gooseherd, the friend of her childhood. In " The Feather Bird "
of Grimm's Hausmarchen, three sisters are the victims, the third
being rescued by her brothers. Bluebeard, though Perrault
does not state the number of his crimes, is generally credited
with the murder of seven wives. His history belongs to the
common stock of folklore, and has even been ingeniously fitted
with a mythical interpretation. In France the Bluebeard legend
has its local habitation in Brittany, but whether the existing
traditions connecting him with Gilles de Rais (q.v.) or Comorre
the Cursed, a Breton chief of the 6th century, were anterior
to Perrault's time, we have no means of determining. The
identification of Bluebeard with Gilles de Rais, the bite ^exter-
mination of Michelet's forcible language, persists locally in the
neighbourhood of the various castles of the baron, especially at
Machecoul and Tiffauges, the chief scenes of his infamous crimes.
Gilles de Rais, however, had only one wife, who survived him,
and his victims were in the majority of cases young boys. The
traditional connexion may arise simply from the not improbable
association of two monstrous tales. The less widespread identi-
fication of Bluebeard with Comorre is supported by a series of
frescoes dating only a few years later than the publication of
Perrault's story, in a chapel at St Nicolas de Bieuzy dedicated
to St Tryphine, in which the tale of Bluebeard is depicted as
the story of the saint, who in history was the wife of Comorre.
Comorre or Conomor had his original headquarters at Carhaix,
in Finistere. He extended his authority by marriage with the
widow of Iona, chief of Domnonia, and attempted the life of
his stepson Judwal, who fled to the Frankish court. About 547
or 548 he obtained in marriage, through the intercession of
St Gildas, Tryphine, daughter of Weroc, count of Vannes. The
pair lived in peace at Castel Finans for some time, but Comorre,
disappointed in his ambitions in the Vannetais, presently
threatened Tryphine. She took flight, but her husband found
her hiding in a wood, when he gave her a wound on the skull and
left her for dead. She was tended and restored to health by
St Gildas, and after the birth of her son retired to a convent of
her own foundation. Eventually Comorre was defeated and
slain by Judwal. In legend St Tryphine was decapitated and
miraculously restored to life by Gildas. Alain Bouchard (Grandes
croniques, Nantes, 1531) asserts that Comorre had already put
several wives to death before he married Tryphine. In the

Legendes bretonnes of the count d'Amezeuil the church legend
becomes a charming fairy tale.

See also E. A. Vizetclly, Bluebeard (1902) ; E. Sidney Hartland,
"The Forbidden Chamber," in Folklore, vol. iii. (1885); and the
editions of the Contes of Charles Perrault (q.v.). Cf. A. France,
Les Sept Femmes de Barbe Bleue (1909).

BLUE-BOOK, the general name given to the reports and
other documents printed by order of the parliament of the
United Kingdom, so called from their being usually covered
with blue paper, though some are bound in drab and others have
white covers. The printing of its proceedings was first adopted
by the House of Commons in 1681, and in 1836 was commenced
the practice of selling parliamentary papers to the public. All
notices of questions, resolutions, votes and proceedings in both
Houses of Parliament are issued each day during the session;
other publications include the various papers issued by the
different government departments, the reports of committees
and commissions of inquiry, public bills, as well as returns,
correspondence, &c, specially ordered to be printed by either
house. The papers of each session are so arranged as to admit
of being bound up in regular order, and are well indexed. The
terms upon which blue-books, single papers, &c, are issued
to the general public are one halfpenny per sheet of four pages,
but for an annual subscription of £20 all the parliamentary
publications of the year may be obtained ; but subscriptions can
be arranged so that almost any particular class of publication
can be obtained — for example, the daily votes and proceedings
can be obtained for an annual subscription of £3, the House
of Lords papers for £10, or the House of Commons papers for
£15. Any publication can also be purchased separately.

Most foreign countries have a distinctive colour for the binding
of their official publications. That of the United States varies,
but foreign diplomatic correspondence is bound in red. The
United States government publications are not only on sale (as a
rule) but are widely supplied gratis, with the result that important
publications soon get out of print, and it is difficult to obtain ac-
cess to many valuable reports or other information, except at a
public library. German official publications are bound in white ;
French, in yellow; Austrian, in red; Portuguese, in white; Italian,
in green; Spanish, in red; Mexican, in green; Japanese, in grey;
Chinese, in yellow.

BLUESTOCKING, a derisive name for a literary woman.
The term originated in or about 175°, when Mrs Elizabeth
Montagu (q.v.) made a determined effort to introduce into
society a healthier and more intellectual tone, by holding
assemblies at which literary conversation and discussions were
to take the place of cards and gossip. Most of those attending
were conspicuous by the plainness of their dress, and a Mr
Benjamin Stillingfleet specially caused comment by always
wearing blue or worsted stockings instead of the usual black
silk. It was in special reference to him that Mrs Montagu's
friends were called the Bluestocking Society or Club, and the
women frequenting her house in Hill Street came to be known
as the " Bluestocking Ladies " or simply " bluestockings." As
an alternative explanation, the origin of the name is attributed
to Mrs Montagu's deliberate adoption of blue stockings (in
which fashion she was followed by all her women friends) as
the badge of the society she wished to form. She is said to have
obtained the idea from Paris, where in the 17th century there
was a revival of a social reunion in 1590 on the lines of that
formed in 1400 at Venice, the ladies and men of which wore
blue stockings. The term had been applied in England as early
as 1653 to the Little Parliament, in allusion to the puritanically
plain and coarse dress of the members.

BLUFF (a word of uncertain origin; possibly connected with
an obsolete Dutch word, blaf, broad), an adjective used of a
ship, meaning broad and nearly vertical in the bows; similarly,
of a cliff or shore, presenting a bold and nearly perpendicular
front; of a person, good-natured and frank, with a rough or
abrupt manner. Another word "bluff," perhaps connected
with German verbliifen, to baffle, meant originally a horse's
blinker, the corresponding verb meaning to blindfold: it survives

9 2

as a term in such games as poker, where " to bluff " means
to bet heavily on a hand so as to make an opponent believe it
to be stronger than it is; hence such phrases as " the game of
bluff,"" a policy of bluff."

BLUM, ROBERT FREDERICK (1857-1903), American artist,
was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 9th of July 1857. He was
employed for a time in a lithographic shop, and studied at the
McMicken Art School of Design in Cincinnati, and at the Penn-
sylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, but he was
practically self-taught, and early showed great and original
talent. He settled in New York in 1879, and his first published
sketches — of Japanese jugglers — appeared in St Nicholas. His
most important work is a large frieze in the Mendelssohn Music
Hall, New York, " Music and the Dance " (1895). His pen-and-
ink work for the Century magazine attracted wide attention, as
did his illustrations for Sir Edwin Arnold's Japonica. In the
country and art of Japan he had been interested for many years.
" A Daughter of Japan," drawn by Blum and W. J. Baer, was
the cover of Scribner's Magazine for May 1893, and was one of
the earliest pieces of colour-printing for an American magazine.
In Scribner's for 1893 appeared also his " Artist's Letters from
Japan." He was an admirer of Fortuny, whose methods some-
what influenced his work. Blum's Venetian pictures, such as
"A Bright Day at Venice" (1882), had lively charm and
beauty. He died on the 8th of June 1903 in New York City.
He was a member of the National Academy of Design, being
elected after his exhibition in 1892 of " The Amcya "; and
was president of the Painters in Pastel. Although an excellent
draughtsman and etcher, it was as a colourist that he chiefly
excelled.

BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1752-1840), German
physiologist and anthropologist, was born at Gotha on the nth
of May 1752. After studying medicine at Jena, he graduated
doctor at Gottingen in 1775, and was appointed extraordinary
professor of medicine in 1776 and ordinary professor in 1778.
He died at Gottingen on the 22nd of January 1840. He was
the author of Institutiones Physiologicae (1787), and of a Hand-
buch der vergleichcnden Anatomie (1804), both of which were
very popular and went through many editions, but he is best
known for his work in connexion with anthropology, of which
science he has been justly called the founder. He was the first
to show the value of comparative anatomy in the study of man's
history, and his craniometrical researches justified his division
of the human race into several great varieties or families, of
which he enumerated five — the Caucasian or white race, the
Mongolian or yellow, the Malayan or brown race, the Negro or
black race, and the American or red race. This classification has
been very generally received, and most later schemes have been
modifications of it. His most important anthropological work
was his description of sixty human crania published originally
in fasciculi under the title Collcclionis suae craniorum diver sarum
gentium illustratae decades (Gottingen, 1790-1828).

BLUMENTHAL, LEONHARD, Count von (1810-1900),
Prussian field marshal, son of Captain Ludwig von Blumenthal
(killed in 18 13 at the battle of Dennewitz), was born at Schwedt-
on-Oder on the 30th of July 1810. Educated at the military
schools of Culm and Berlin, he entered the Guards as 2nd lieu-
tenant in 1827. After serving in the Rhine provinces, he joined
the topographical division of the general staff in 1846. As
lieutenant of the 31st foot he took part in 1848 in the suppression
of the Berlin riots, and in 1849 was promoted captain on the
general staff. The same year he served on the staff of General
von Bonin in the Schleswig-Holstein campaign, and so distin-
guished himself, particularly at Fredericia, that he was appointed
chief of the staff of the Schleswig-Holstein army. In 1850 he
was general staff officer of the mobile division under von Tietzen
in Hesse-Cassel. He was sent on a mission to England in that
year (4th class of Red Eagle), and on several subsequent occa-
sions. Having attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he was
appointed personal adjutant to Prince Frederick Charles in 1859.
In i860 he became colonel of the 31st, and later of the 71st,
regiment. He was chief of the staff of the III. army corps when,

BLUM— BLUNT, J. J.

on the outbreak of the Danish War of 1864, he was nominated
chief of the general staff of the army against Denmark, and
displayed so much ability, particularly at Diippel and the
passage to Alsen island, that he was promoted major-general
and given the order pour le merite. In the war of 1866 Blumen-
thal occupied the post of chief of the general staff to the crown
prince of Prussia, commanding the 2nd army. It was upon
this army that the brunt of the fighting fell, and at Koniggratz
it decided the fortunes of the day. Blumcnthal's own part in
these battles and in the campaign generally was most con-
spicuous. On the field of Koniggratz the crown prince said to
his chief of staff, " I know to whom I owe the conduct of my
army," and Blumenthal soon received promotion to lieutenant-
general and the oak-leaf of the order pour le merite. He was also
made a knight of the Hohenzollern Order. From 1866 to 1870
he commanded the 14th division at Diisseldorf. In the Franco-
German War of 1870-71 he was chief of staff of the 3rd army
under the crown prince. Blumenthal's soldierly qualities and
talent were never more conspicuous than in the critical days
preceding the battle of Sedan, and his services in the war have
been considered as scarcely less valuable and important than
those of Moltke himself. In 187 1 Blumenthal represented
Germany at the British manoeuvres at Chobham, and was given
the command of the IV. army corps at Magdeburg. In 1873 he
became a general of infantry, and ten years later he was made a
count. In 1888 he was made a general field marshal, after which
he was in command of the 4th and 3rd army inspections. He
retired in 1896, and died at Quellendorf near Kothen on the 21st
of December 1900.

Blumenthal's diary of 1866 and 1870-1871 has been edited by
his son, Count Albrecht von Blumenthal [Tagebuch des G.F.M. von
Blumenthal), 1902; an English translation (Journals of Count von
Blumenthal) was published in 1903.

BLUNDERBUSS (a corruption of the Dutch donder, thunder,
and the Dutch bus; cf. Ger. Biichse, a box or tube, hence a
thunder-box or gun), an obsolete muzzle-loading firearm with
a bell-shaped muzzle. Its calibre was large so that it could
contain many balls or slugs, and it was intended to be fired at
a short range, so that some of the charge was sure to take effect.
The word is also used by analogy to describe a blundering and
random person or talker.

BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823-1884), English divine, was born
at Chelsea in 1823, and before going to the university of Durham
in 1 8 50 was for some years engaged in business as a manufacturing
chemist. He was ordained in 1852 and took his M.A. degree
in 1855, publishing in the same year a work on The Atonement.
He held in Succession several preferments, among them the
vicarage of Kennington near Oxford (1868), which he vacated
in 1873 for the crown living of Beverston in Gloucestershire.
He had already gained some reputation as an industrious
theologian, and had published among other works an annotated
edition of the Prayer Book (1867), a History of the English
Reformation (1868), and a Book of Church Law (1872), as well as
a useful Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology (1870).
The continuation of these labours was seen in a Dictionary of
Sects and Heresies (1874), an Annotated Bible (3 vols., 1878-1879),
and a Cyclopaedia of Religion (1884), and received recognition
in the shape of the D.D. degree bestowed on him in 1882. He
died in London on the nth of April 1884.

BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794-1855), English divine, was born
at Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire, and educated at
St John's College, Cambridge, where he took his degree as
fifteenth wrangler and obtained a fellowship (1816). He was
appointed a Wort's travelling bachelor 1818, and spent some
time in Italy and Sicily, afterwards publishing an account of his
journey. He proceeded M.A. in 1819, B.D. 1826, and was
Hulsean Lecturer in 1 831-183 2 while holding a curacy in Shrop-
shire. In 1834 he became rector of Great Oakley in Essex, and
in 1839 was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at
Cambridge. In 1854 he declined the see of Salisbury, and he
died on the 18th of June 1855. His chief book was Undesigned
Coincidences in the Writings both of the Old and New Testaments

BLUNT, W. S.— B'NAI B'RITH

(1833; fuller edition, 1847). Some of his writings, among them
the History of the Christian Church during the First Three Centuries
and the lectures On the Right Use of the Early Fathers, were
published posthumously.

A short memoir of him appeared in 1856 from the hand of William
Selwyn, his successor in the divinity professorship.

BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (1840- ), English poet and
publicist, was born on the 17th of August 1840 at Petworth
House, Sussex, the son of Francis Scawen Blunt, who served in
the Peninsular War and was wounded at Corunna. He was
educated at Stonyhurst and Oscott, and entered the diplomatic
service in 1858, serving successively at Athens, Madrid, Paris and
Lisbon. In 1867 he was sent to South America, and on his
return to England retired from the service on his marriage with
Lady Anne Noel, daughter of the earl of Lovelace and a grand-
daughter of the poet Byron. In 1872 he succeeded, by the death
of his elder brother, to the estate of Crabbet Park, Sussex, where
he established a famous stud for the breeding of Arab horses,
Mr and Lady Anne Blunt travelled repeatedly in northern Africa,
Asia Minor and Arabia, two of their expeditions being described
in Lady Anne's Bedouins of the Euphrates (2 vols., 1879) and A
Pilgrimage to Nejd (2 vols., 1881). Mr Blunt became known as
an ardent sympathizer with Mahommedan aspirations, and in
his Future of Islam (1888) he directed attention to the forces
which afterwards produced the movements of Pan-Islamism and
Mahdism. Hs was a violent opponent of the English policy in
the Sudan, and in The Wind and the Whirlwind (in verse, 1883)
prophesied its downfall. He supported the national party in
Egypt, and took a prominent part in the defence of Arabi Pasha.
Ideas about India (1885) was the result of two visits to that
country, the second in 1883-1884. In 1885 and 1886 he- stood
unsuccessfully for parliament as a Home Ruler; and in 1887 he
was arrested in Ireland while presiding over a political meeting in
connexion with the agitation on Lord Clanricarde's estate, and
was imprisoned for two months in Kilmainham . His best-known
volume of verse, Love Sonnets of Proteus (1880), is a revelation of
his real merits as an emotional poet. The Poetry of Wilfrid Blunt
(1888), selected and edited by W. E. Henley and Mr George
Wyndham, includes these sonnets, together with " Worth
Forest, a Pastoral," " Griselda " (described as a " society novel
in rhymed verse"), translations from the Arabic, and poems
which had appeared in other volumes.

BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR (1808-1881), Swiss jurist
and politician, was born at Zurich on the 7th of March 1808, the
son of a soap and candle manufacturer. From school he passed
into the Politische Institut (a seminary of law and political
science) in his native town, and proceeding thence to the uni-
versities of Berlin and Bonn, took the degree of doctor juris in the
latter in 1829. Returning to Zurich in 1830, he threw himself
with ardour into the political strife which was at the time
unsettling all the cantons of the Confederation, and in this year
published Uber die Verfassung der Stadt Ziirich (On the Con-
stitution of the City of Zurich) . This was followed by Das Volk
und der Souveran (1830), a work in which, while pleading for
constitutional government, he showed his bitter repugnance of
the growing Swiss radicalism. Elected in 1837 a member of the
Grosser Rath (Great Council), he became the champion of the
moderate conservative party. Fascinated by the metaphysical
views of the philosopher Fricdrich Rohmer (1814-1856), a man
who attracted little other attention, he endeavoured in Psycho-
logische Studien uber Staat und Kirche (1844) to apply them to
political science generally, and in particular as a panacea for the
constitutional troubles of Switzerland. Bluntschli, shortly before
his death, remarked, " I have gained renown as a jurist, but
my greatest desert is to have comprehended Rohmer." This
philosophical essay, however, coupled with his uncompromising
attitude towards both radicalism and ultramontanism, brought
him many enemies, and rendered his continuance in the council,
of which he had been elected president, impossible. He resigned
his seat, and on the overthrow of the Sonderbund in 1847,
perceiving that all hope of power for his party was lost, took
leave of Switzerland with the pamphlet Stimme eines Schweizers

uber die Bundesreform (1847), and settled at Munich, where he
became professor of constitutional law in 1848.

At Munich he devoted himself with energy to the special work
of his chair, and, resisting the temptation to identify himself
with politics, published Allgemeines Staalsrecht (1851-1852);
Lehre vom modernen Staat (1875-1876); and, in conjunction with
Karl Ludwig Theodor Brater (1819-1869), Deuisches Staats-
worterbuch (n vols., 1857-1870; abridged by Edgar Loening in
3 vols., 1860-1875). Meanwhile he had assiduously worked at his
code for the canton of Zurich, Privatrechlliches Gesetzbuch fur den
Kanton Ziirich (4 vols., 1854-1856), a work which was much
praised at the time, and which, particularly the section devoted
to contracts, served as a model for codes both in Switzerland and
other countries. In 1861 Bluntschli received a call to Heidelberg
as professor of constitutional law (Staatsrecht), where he again
entered the political arena, endeavouring in his Geschichte des
allgcmeinen Staatsrcchts und der Politik (1864) " to stimulate,"
as he said, " the political consciousness of the German people, to
cleanse it of prejudices and to further it intellectually." In his
new home, Baden, he devoted his energies and political influence,
during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, towards keeping the
country neutral. From this time Bluntschli became active in
the field of international law, and his fame as a jurist belongs
rather to this province than to that of constitutional law. His
Das moderne Kriegsrecht (1866); Das moderne Volkerrecht
(1868), and Das Beutcrecht im Krieg (1878) are likely to remain
invaluable text-books in this branch of the science of juris-
prudence. He also wrote a pamphlet on the "Alabama " case.

Bluntschli was one of the founders, at Ghent in 1873, of the
Institute of International Law, and was the representative of the
German emperor at the conference on the international laws of
war at Brussels. During the latter years of his life he took a
lively interest in the Protestantenvcrein, a society formed to
combat reactionary and ultramontane views of theology. He
died suddenly at Karlsruhe on the 21st of October 1881. His
library was acquired by Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore,
U.S.A.

Among his works, other than those before mentioned, may be
cited Deutsches Privatrecht (1853-1854); Deutsche Staatslehre
filr Gebildete (1874); and Deutsche Staatslehre und die heutige
Slaatenwelt (1880).

For notices of Bluntschli's life and works see his interesting
autobiography, Denkwurdiges aus meinem Leben (1884); von
Holtzendorff, Bluntschli und seine Verdienste urn die Staatswissen-
schaften (1882); Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexicon (1901); and a
biography by Meyer von. Kronau, in All gemeine deutsche Biographic

BLYTH, a market town and seaport of Northumberland,
England, in the parliamentary borough of Morpeth, 9 m. E.S.E.
of that town, at the mouth of the river Blyth, on a branch of the
North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5472.
This is the port for a considerable coal-mining district, and its
harbour, on the south side of the river, is provided with
mechanical appliances for shipping coal. There are five dry
docks, and upwards of i| m. of quayage. Timber is largely
imported. Some shipbuilding and the manufacture of rope,
sails and ship-fittings are carried on, and the fisheries are
valuable. Blyth is also in considerable favour as a watering-
place; there are a pleasant park, a pier, protecting the harbour,
about 1 m. in length, and a sandy beach affording sea-bathing.
The river Blyth rises near the village of Kirkheaton, and has an
easterly course of about 25 m. through a deep, well- wooded and
picturesque valley.

B'NAI B'RITH (or Sons of the Covenant), INDEPENDENT
ORDER OF, a Jewish fraternal society. It was founded at New
York in 1843 by a number of German Jews, headed by Henry
Jones, and is the oldest as well as the largest of the Jewish
fraternal organizations. Its membership in 1908 was 35,870,
its 481 lodges and 10 grand lodges being distributed over the
United States, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Rumania, Egypt
and Palestine. Its objects are to promote a high morality among
Jews, regardless of differences as to dogma and ceremonial
customs, and especially to inculcate the supreme virtues of

BOA— BOAR

charity and brotherly love. Political and religious discussions
were from the first excluded from the debates of the order. In
1851 the first grand lodge was established at New York; in 1856,
the number of district lodges having increased, the supreme
authority was vested in a central body consisting of one member
from each lodge; and by the present constitution, adopted in
1868, this authority is vested in a president elected for five years,
an executive committee and court of appeals (elected as before).
The first lodge in Germany was instituted at Berlin in 1883. A
large number of charitable and other public institutions have
been established in the United States and elsewhere by the order,
of which may be mentioned the large orphan asylum in Cleveland,
the home for the aged and infirm at Yonkers, N.Y., the National
Jewish hospital for consumptives at Denver, and the Maimonides
library in New York City. The B'nai B'rith society has also
co-operated largely with other Jewish philanthropic organizations
in succouring distressed Israelites throughout the world.

See the Jewish Encyclopaedia (1902), s.v.

BOA, a name formerly applied to all large serpents which,
devoid of poison fangs, kill their prey by constriction; but now
confined to that subfamily of the Boidae which are devoid of
teeth in the praemaxilla and are without supraorbital bones.
The others are known as pythons (q.v.). The true boas comprise
some forty species; most of them are American, but the genus
Eryx inhabits North Africa, Greece and south-western Asia;
the. genus Enygrus ranges from New Guinea to the Fiji; Casarea
dussumieri is restricted to Round Island, near Mauritius; and
two species of Boa and one of Corallus represent this subfamily
in Madagascar, while all the other boas live in America, chiefly
in tropical parts. All Boidae possess vestiges of pelvis and hind
limbs, appearing externally as claw-like spurs on each side of the
vent, but they are so small that they are practically without
function in climbing. The usually short tail is prehensile.

One of the commonest species of the genus Boa is the Boa
constrictor, which has a wide range from tropical Mexico to
Brazil. The head is covered with small scales, only one of the
preoculars being enlarged. The general colour is a delicate pale
brown, with about a dozen and a half darker cross-bars, which are
often connected by a still darker dorso-lateral streak, enclosing
large oval spots. On each side is a series of large dark brown
spots with light centres. On the tail the markings become
bolder, brick red with black and yellow. The under parts are
yellowish with black dots. This species rarely reaches a length
of more than 10 ft. It climbs well, prefers open forest in the
neighbourhood of water, is often found in plantations where it
retires into a hole in the ground, and lives chiefly on birds and
small mammals. Like most true boas, it is of a very gentle
disposition and easily domesticates itself in the palm or reed
thatched huts of the natives, where it hunts the rats during the
night.

The term* " boa " is applied by analogy to a long article of
women's dress wound round the neck.

80ABDIL (a corruption of the name Abu Abdullah), the last
Moorish king of Granada, called el chico, the little, and also el
zogoybi, the unfortunate. A son of Muley Abu'l Hassan, king of
Granada, he was proclaimed king in 1482 in place of his father,
who was driven from the land. Boabdil soon after sought to
gain prestige by invading Castile. He was taken prisoner at
Lucena in 1483, and only obtained his freedom by consenting to
hold Granada as a tributary kingdom under Ferdinand and
Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon. The next few
years were consumed in struggles with his father and his
uncle Abdullah ez Zagal. In 1491 Boabdil was summoned by
Ferdinand and Isabella to surrender the city of Granada, and
on his refusal it was besieged by the Castilians. Eventually, in
January 1492, Granada was surrendered, and the king spent
some time on the lands which he was allowed to hold in Andalusia.
Subsequently he crossed to Africa, and is said to have been
killed in battle fighting for his kinsman, the ruler of Fez. The
spot from which Boabdil looked for the last time on Granada is
still shown, and is known as " the last sigh of the Moor " (el
ultimo suspire del Moro).

See J. A. Conde, Domin&eion de los Arabes en Espana (Paris,
1840), translated into English by Mrs J. Foster (London, 1854-
i855) ; Washington Irving, The Alhambra (New York, ed. 1880).

BOADICEA, strictly Boudicca, a British queen in the time
of the emperor Nero. Her husband Prasutagus ruled the Iceni
(in what is now Norfolk) as an autonomous prince under Roman
suzerainty. On his death (a.d. 6,1) without male heir, his
dominions were annexed, and the annexation was carried out
brutally. He had by his will divided his private wealth between
his two daughters and Nero, trusting thereby to win imperial
favour for his family. Instead, his wife was scourged (doubtless
for resisting the annexation), his daughters outraged, his chief
tribesmen plundered. The proud, fierce queen and her people
rose, and not alone. With them rose half Britain, enraged, for
other causes, at Roman rule. Roman taxation and conscription
lay heavy on the province; in addition, the Roman government
had just revoked financial concessions made a few years earlier,
and L. Annaeus Seneca, who combined the parts of a moralist
and a money-lender, had abruptly recalled large loans made
from his private wealth to British chiefs. A favourable chance
for revolt was provided by the absence of the governor-general,
Suetonius Paulinus, and most of his troops in North Wales and
Anglesey. All south-east Britain joined the movement. Paulinus
rushed back without waiting for his troops, but he could do nothing
alone. The Britons burnt the Roman municipalities of Verulam
and Colchester, the mart of London, and several military posts,
massacred " over 70,000 " Romans and Britons friendly to Rome,
and almost annihilated the Ninth Legion marching from Lincoln
to the rescue. At last Paulinus, who seems to have rejoined his
army, met the Britons in the field. The site of the battle is
unknown. One writer has put it at Chester; others at London,
where King's Cross had once a narrow escape of being christened
Boadicea's Cross, and actually for many years bore the name of
Battle Bridge, in supposed reference to this battle. Probably,
however, it was on Watling Street, between London and Chester.
In a desperate soldiers' battle Rome regained the province.
Boadicea took poison; thousands of Britons fell in the fight or
were hunted down in the ensuing guerrilla. Finally, Rome
adopted a kindlier policy, and Britain became quiet. But the
scantiness of Romano-British remains in Norfolk may be due to
the severity with which the Iceni were crushed.

See Tacitus, Annals, xiv. ; Agric. xv. ; Dio lxii. The name
Boudicca seems to mean in Celtic much the same as Victoria.

(F. J. H.)

BOAR (O. Eng. bar; the word is found only in W. Ger.
languages, cf. Dutch beer, Ger. Eber), the name given to the un-
castrated male of the domestic pig (q.v.), and to some wild species
of the family Suidae (see Swine). The European wild boar (Sus
scrofa) is distributed over Europe, northern Africa, and central
and northern Asia. It has long been extinct in the British
Isles, where it once abounded, but traces have been found of its
survival in Chartley Forest, Staffordshire, in an entry of 1683
in an account-book of the steward of the manor, and it possibly
remained till much later in the more remote parts of Scotland
and Ireland (J. E. Harting, Extinct British Animals, 1880).
The wild boar is still found in Europe, in marshy woodland
districts where there is plenty of cover, and it is fairly plentiful
in Spain, Austria, Russia and Germany, particularly in the
Black Forest.

From the earliest times, owing to its great strength, speed,
and ferocity when at bay, the boar has been one of the favourite
beasts of the chase. Under the old forest laws of England it wat
one of the " beasts of the forest," and, as such, under the Norman
kings the unprivileged killing of it was punishable by death or
the loss of a member. It was hunted in England and in Europe
on foot and on horseback with dogs, while the weapon of attack
was always the spear. In Europe the wild boar is still hunted
with dogs, but the spear, except when used in emergencies and
for giving the coup de grdce, has been given up for the gun. It
is also shot in great forest drives in Austria, Germany and
Russia. The Indian wild boar (Sus cristatus) is slightly taller
than Sus scrofa, standing some 30 to 40 in. at the shoulder. It

BOARD— BOASE

is found throughout India, Ceylon and Burma. Here the horse
and spear are still used, and the sport is one of the most popular
in India. (See Pig-sticking.)

The boar is one of the four heraldic beasts of venery, and was
the cognizance of Richard III., king of England. As an article
of food the boar's head was long considered a special delicacy,
and its serving was attended with much ceremonial. At Queen's
College, Oxford, the dish is still brought on Christmas day in
procession to the high-table, accompanied by the singing of a
carol.

BOARD (O. Eng. lord), a plank or long narrow piece of
timber. The word comes into various compounds to describe
boards used for special purposes, or objects like boards (drawing-
board, ironing-board, sounding-board, chess-board, cardboard,
back-board, notice-board, scoring-board). The phrase "to
keep one's name on the boards," at Cambridge University,
signifies to remain a member of a college; at Oxford it is " on
the books." In bookbinding, pasteboard covers are called
boards. Board was early used of a table, hence such phrases
as "bed and board," "board and lodging"; or of a gaming-
table, as in the phrase " to sweep the board," meaning to pocket
all the stakes, hence, figuratively, to carry all before one. The
same meaning leads to " Board of Trade," " Local Government
Board," &c.

From the meaning of border or side, and especially ship's
side, comes " sea-board," meaning sea-coast, and the phrases
"aboard" (Fr. abord), "over-board," "by the board";
similarly " weather-board," the side of a ship which is to wind-
ward; " larboard and starboard " (the former of uncertain
origin, Mid. Eng. laddeboard or latheboard; the latter meaning
" steering side," O. Eng. steorbord, the rudder of early ships
working over the steering side), signifying (to one standing at
the stern and looking forward) the left and right sides of the
ship respectively.

BOARDING-HOUSE, a private house in which the proprietor
provides board and lodging for paying guests. The position
of a guest in a boarding-house differs in English law, to some
extent, on the one hand from that of a lodger in the ordinary
sense of the term, and on the other from that of a guest in an
inn. Unlike the lodger, he frequently has not the exclusive
occupation of particular rooms. Unlike the guest in an inn,
his landlord has no lien upon his property for rent or any other
debt due in respect of his board (Thompson v. Lacy, 1820,3 B.
and Aid. 283). The landlord is under an obligation to take
reasonable care for the safety of property brought by a guest
into his house, and is liable for damages in case of breach of this
obligation (Scarborough v. Cosgrove, 1903, 2 K.B. 803). Again,
unlike the innkeeper, a boarding-house keeper does not hold
himself out as ready to receive all travellers for whom he has
accommodation, for which they are ready to pay, and of course
he is entitled to get rid of any guest on giving reasonable notice
(see Lamond v. Richard, 1897, 1 Q.B. 541, 548). What is
reasonable notice depends on the terms of the contract; and,
subject thereto, the course of payment of rent is a material
circumstance (see Landlord and Tenant). Apparently the
same implied warranty of fitness for habitation at the commence-
ment of the tenancy which exists in the case of furnished lodg-
ings (see Lodger and Lodgings) exists also in the case of
boarding-houses; and the guest in a boarding-house, like a lodger,
is entitled to all the usual and necessary conveniences of a
dwelling-house.

The law of the United States is similar to English law.

Under the French Code Civil, claims for subsistence furnished
to a debtor and his family during the last year of his life by
boarding-house keepers (maitres de pension) are privileged over
the generality of moveables, the privilege being exerciseable
after legal expenses, funeral expenses, the expenses of the last
illness, and the wages of servants for the year elapsed and what
is due for the current year (art. 2101 (5)). Keepers of taverns
(aubergistes) and hotels (hdteliers) are responsible for the goods
of their guests — the committal of which to their custody is
regarded as a deposit of necessity (dipdt necessaire). They are

liable for the loss of such goods by theft, whether by servants
or strangers, but not where the loss is due to force majeure (arts.
1952-1954). Their liability for money and bearer securities not
actually deposited is limited to 1000 francs (law of 18 th of April
1889). These provisions are reproduced in substance in the
Civil Codes of Quebec (arts. 1814, 1815, 1994, 2006) and of
St Lucia (art. 1889). In Quebec, boarding-house keepers have
a lien on the goods of their guests for the value or price of any
food or accommodation furnished to them, and have also a right
to sell their baggage and other property, if the amount remains
unpaid for three months, under conditions similar to those
imposed on innkeepers in England (art. 18 16 A; and see Inns
and Innkeepers); also in the Civil Code of St Lucia (arts.
iS78, 1714, 1715)- ' (A. W. R.)

BOARDING-OUT SYSTEM, in the English poor law, the
boarding-out of orphan or deserted children with suitable foster-
parents. The practice was first authorized in 1868, though
for many years previously it had been carried out by some
boards of guardians on their own initiative. Boarding-out is
governed by two orders of the Local Government Board, issued
in 1 889. The first permits guardians to board-out children within
their own union, except in the metropolis. The second governs
the boarding-out of children in localities outside the union.
The sum payable to the foster-parents is not to exceed 4s. per
week for each child. 'The system has been much discussed by
authorities on the administration of the poor law. It has been
objected that few working-men with an average-sized family
can afford to devote such an amount for the maintenance of
each child, and that, therefore, boarded-out children are better
off than the children of the independent (Fawcett, Pauperism).
Working-class guardians, also, do not favour the system, being
suspicious as to the disinterestedness of the foster-parents.
On the other hand, it is argued that from the economic and
educational point of view much better results are obtained by
boarding-out children; they are given a natural life, and when
they grow up they are without effort merged in the general
population (Mackay, Hist. Eng. Poor Law). See also Poor
Law.

The " boarding-out " of lunatics is, in Scotland, a regular part
of the lunacy administration. It has also been successfully
adopted in Belgium. (See Insanity.)

BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA (1801-1831), American
Baptist missionary, was born at Livermore, Me., and educated
at Waterville College and Andover Theological Seminary. In
1825 he went to India as a missionary, and in 1827 to Burma,
where his promising work among the Karens was cut short
by his early death. His widow married another well-known
Burmese missionary, Adoniram Judson.

His son, George Dana Boardman, the younger (1828-1903),
made the voyage from Burma to America alone when six years
of age. He graduated in 1852 at Brown University, and from
the Newton Theological Institution in 1855. He held Baptist
pastorates at Rochester (1856-1864), and at Philadelphia, and
was president of the American Baptist Missionary Union, 1880-
1884. At Philadelphia he is said to have taken his congregation
through every verse of the New Testament in 643 Wednesday
evening lectures, which occupied nearly eighteen years, and
afterwards to have begun on the Old Testament in similar
fashion. Among his published works are Studies in the Model
Prayer (1879), and Epiphanies of the Risen Lord (1879).

BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL (1799-1883), English geologist,
the eldest son of Henry Boase (1763-1827), banker, of Madron,
Cornwall, was born in London on the 2nd of September 1799.
Educated partly at Tiverton grammar-school, and partly at
Dublin, where he studied chemistry, he afterwards proceeded
to Edinburgh and took the degree of M.D. in 1821. He then
settled for some years as a medical practitioner at Penzance;
there geology engaged his particular attention, and he became
secretary of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. The
results of his observations were embodied in his Treatise on
Primary Geology (1834), a work of considerable merit in regard
to the older crystalline and igneous rocks and the subject of

9 6

BOAT

mineral veins. In 1837 he removed to London, where he
remained for about a year, being elected F.R.S. In 1838 he
became partner in a firm of bleachers at Dundee. He retired
in 187 1, and died on the 5th of May 1883.

BOAT (O. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with
Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great
difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.), a comparatively
small open craft for conveyance on water, usually propelled
by some form of oar or sail.

The origin of the word " boat " is probably to be looked
for in the A.S. bat = 3. stem, a stick, a piece of wood. If
this be so, the term in its inception referred to the material of
which the primitive vessel was constructed, and in this respect
may well be contrasted with the word " ship," of which the
primary idea was the process by which the material was fashioned
and adapted for the use of man.

We may assume that primitive man, in his earliest efforts to
achieve the feat of conveying himself and his belongings by
water, succeeded in doing so — (1) by fastening together a
quantity of material of sufficient buoyancy to float and carry
him above the level of the water; (2) by scooping out a fallen
tree so as to obtain buoyancy enough for the same purpose.
In these two processes is to be found the genesis of both boat and
ship, of which, though often used as convertible terms, the
former is generally restricted to the smaller type of vessel such
as is dealt with in this article. For the larger type the reader
is referred to Ship.

Great must have been the triumph of the man who first
discovered that the rushes or the trunks he had managed to tie
together would, propelled by a stick or a branch (cf. ramus and
remus) used as pole or paddle, convey him safely across the river
or lake, which had hitherto been his barrier. But use multiplies
wants, discovers deficiencies, suggests improvements. Man soon
found out that he wanted to go faster than the raft would move,
that the water washed over and up through it, and this need of
speed, and of dry carrying power, which we find operative
throughout the history of the boat down to the present day,
drove him to devise other modes of flotation as well as to try
to improve his first invention.

The invention of the hollowed trunk, of the " dug-out "
(monoxylon), however it came about, whenever and wherever
it came into comparison with the raft, must have superseded the
latter for some purposes, though not by any means for all. It
was superior to the raft in speed, and was, to a certain extent,
water-tight. On the other hand it was inferior in carrying
power and stability. But the two types once conceived had
come to stay, and to them severally, or to attempts to combine
the useful properties of both, may be traced all the varieties of
vessel to which the name of boat may be applied.

The development of the raft is admirably illustrated in the
description, given us by Homer in the Odyssey, of the construc-
tion by the hero Ulysses of a vessel of the kind. Floating timber
is cut down and carefully shaped and planed with axe and adze,
and the timbers are then exactly fitted face to face and com-
pacted with trenails and dowels, just as the flat floor of a lump
or lighter might be fashioned and fitted nowadays. A platform
is raised upon the floor and a bulwark of osiers contrived to
keep out the wash of the waves (cf. infra, Malay boats). It
seems as if the poet, who was intimately acquainted with the
sea ways of his time, intended to convey the idea of progress in
construction, as illustrated by the technical skill of his hero,
and the use of the various tools with which he supplies him.

On the other hand the dug-out had its limitations. The
largest tree that could be thrown and scooped out afforded but
a narrow space for carrying goods, and presented problems as
to stability which must have been very difficult to solve. The
shaping of bow and stern, the bulging out of the sides, the
flattening of the bottom, the invention of a keel piece, the
attempt to raise the sides by building up with planks, all led
on towards the idea of constructing a boat properly so called, or
perhaps to the invention of the canoe, which in some ways may
be regarded as the intermediate stage between dug-out and boat.

Meanwhile the raft had undergone improvements such as
those which Homer indicates. It had arrived at a floor composed
of timbers squared and shaped. It had risen to a platform, the
prototype of a deck. It was but a step to build up the sides and
turn up the ends, and at this point we reach the genesis of ark
and punt, of sanpan and junk, or, in other words, of all the many
varieties of flat-bottomed craft.

When once we have reached the point at which the improve-
ments in the construction of the raft and dug-out bring them,
as it were, within sight of each other, we can enter upon the
history of the development of boats properly so called, which,
in accordance with the uses and the circumstances that dictated
their build, may be said to be descended from the raft or the
dug-out, or from the attempt to combine the respective advan-
tages of the two original types.

Uses and circumstances are infinite in variety and have
produced an infinite variety of boats. But we may safely say
that in all cases the need to be satisfied, the nature of the material
available, and the character of the difficulties to be overcome
have governed the reason and tested the reasonableness of the
architecture of the craft in use.

It is not proposed in this article to enter at any length into
the details of the construction of boats, but it is desirable, for
the sake of clearness, to indicate certain broad distinctions
in the method of building, which, though they run back into the
far past, in some form or other survive and are in use at the
present day.

The tying of trunks together to form a raft is still not unknown
in the lumber trade of the Danube or of North America, nor was
it in early days confined to the raft. It extended to many
boats properly so called, even to many of those built by the
Vikings of old. It may still be seen in the Madras surf boats,
and in those constructed out of driftwood by the inhabitants of
Easter Island in the south Pacific. Virgil, who was an archae-
ologist, represents Charon's boat on the Styx as of this con-
struction, and notes the defect, which still survives, in the craft
of the kind when loaded —

" Gemuit sub pondere cymba
Sutilis, et multam accepit rimosa paludem!"

Aen. vi. 303.

Next to the raft, and to be counted in direct descent from it-,
comes the whole class of flat-bottomed boats including punts
and lighters. As soon as the method of constructing a solid
floor, with trenails and dowels, had been discovered, the method
of converting it into a water-tight box was pursued, sides were
attached plank fashion, with strong knees to stiffen them, and
cross pieces to yoke or key (cf. £vyov, kAt/is) them together.
These thwarts once fixed naturally suggested seats for those
that plied the paddle or the oar. The ends of the vessel were
shaped into bow or stern, either turned up, or with the side
planking convergent in stem or stern post, or joined together
fore and aft by bulkheads fitted in, while interstices were made
water-tight by caulking, and by smearing with bitumen or some
resinous material.

The evolution of the boat as distinct from the punt, or flat-
bottomed type, and following the configuration of the dug-out
in its length and rounded bottom, must have taxed the inventive
art and skill of constructors much more severely than that of
the raft. It is possible that the coracle or the canoe may have
suggested the construction of a framework of sufficient stiffness
to carry a water-tight wooden skin, such as would successfully
resist the pressure of wind and water. And in this regard two
methods were open to the builder, both of which have survived
to the present day: (1) the construction first of the shell of
the boat, into which the stiffening ribs and cross ties were
subsequently fitted; (2) the construction first of a framework
of requisite size and shape, on to which the outer skin of the
boat was subsequently attached.

Further, besides the primitive mode of tying the parts to-
gether, two main types of build must be noticed, in accord-
ance with which a boat is said to be either carvel-built or

BOAT

clinker-built, (i) A boat is carvel-built when the planks are
laid edge to edge so that they present a smooth surface without.
(2) A boat is clinker-built when each plank is laid on so as to
overlap the one below it, thus presenting a series of ledges
running longitudinally.

The former method is said to be of Mediterranean, or perhaps
of Eastern origin. The latter was probably invented by the
old Scandinavian builders, and from them handed down through
the fishing boats of the northern nations to our own time.

The accounts of vessels used by the Egyptians and Phoe-
nicians generally refer to larger craft which naturally fall under
the head of Ship (q.v.). The Nile boats, however,
boats described by Herodotus (ii. 60), built of acacia wood,

were no doubt of various sizes, some of them quite
small, but all following the same type of construction, built up
brick fashion, the blocks being fastened internally to long poles
secured by cross pieces, and the interstices caulked with papyrus.
The ends rose high above the water, and to prevent hogging were
often attached by a truss running longitudinally over crutches
from stem to stern.

The Assyrian and Babylonian vessels described by Herodotus
(i. 194), built up of twigs and boughs, and covered with skins
smeared with bitumen, were really more like huge coracles
and hardly deserve the name of boats.

The use of boats by the Greeks and Romans is attested by
the frequent reference to them in Greek and Latin literature,
though, as regards such small craft, the details given are
hardly enough to form the basis of an accurate classification.

We hear of small boats attendant on a fleet (KtkqTwv, Thuc.
i. 53), and of similar craft employed in piracy (Thuc. iv. 9), and
in one case of a sculling boat, or pair oar (cucanov aiufapiKov,
Thuc. iv. 67), which was carted up and down between the town
of Megara and the sea, being used for the purpose of marauding
at night. We are also familiar with the passage in the Acts
(xxvii.) where in the storm they had hard work "to come by
the boat"; which same boat the sailors afterwards "let down
into the sea, under colour as though they would have cast anchors
out of the foreship," and would have escaped to land in her
themselves, leaving the passengers to drown, if the centurion
and soldiers acting upon St Paul's advice had not cut off the
ropes of the boat and let her fall off.

There can be little doubt that boat races were in vogue among
the Greeks (see Prof. Gardner, Journal of Hellenic Studies,
ii. 91 ff.), and probably formed part of the Panathenaic and
Isthmian festivals. It is, however, difficult to prove that small
boats took part in these races, though it is not unlikely that
they may have done so. The testimony of the coins, such as it
is, points to galleys, and the descriptive term (vtSiv a/uXXa)
leads to the same conclusion.

It is hardly possible now to define the differences which
separated aKaros, anariov, from Ke\r)S, Kekqnov, or from
Xe/i/3oJ, or Ka.pa.fios. They seem all to have been rowing
boats, probably carvel-built, some with keels {acatii modo
carinata, Plin. ix. 19), and to have varied in size, some being
simply sculling boats, and others running up to as many as thirty
oars.

Similarly in Latin authors we have frequent mention of boats
accompanying ships of war. Of this there is a well-known
instance in the account of Caesar's invasion of Britain (B.C.
iv. 26), when the boats of the fleet, and the pinnaces, were filled
with soldiers and sent to assist the Legionaries who were being
fiercely attacked as they waded on to the shore. There is also
an instance in the civil war, which is a prototype of a modern
attack of torpedo boats upon men of war, when Antonius manned
the pinnaces of his large ships to the number of sixty, and with
them attacked and defeated an imprudent squadron of Quad-
riremes (B.C. hi. 24). The class of boats so frequently mentioned
as actuariae seems to have contained craft of all sizes, and to
have been used for all purposes, whether as pleasure boats or as
despatch vessels, or for piracy. In fact the term was employed
vaguely just as we speak of craft in general,
iv. 4

The lembus, which is often referred to in Livy and Polybius,
seems to have been of Illyrian origin, with fine lines and sharp
bows. The class contained boats of various sizes and with a
variable number of oars (biremis, Livy xxiv. 40, sexdecim,
Livy xxxiv. 35); and it is interesting to note the origin in this
case, as the invention of the light Liburnian galleys, which won
the battle of Actium, and altered the whole system of naval
construction, came from the same seaboard.

Besides these, the piratical myoparones (see Cic. In Verrem),
and the poetical phaselus, deserve mention, but here again we
are met with the difficulty of distinguishing boats from ships.
There is also an interesting notice in Tacitus (Hist. iii. 47) of
boats hastily constructed by the natives of the northern coast
of Asia Minor, which he describes as of broad beam with narrow
sides- (probably meaning that the sides "tumbled home"),
joined together without any fastenings of brass or iron. In
a sea-way the sides were raised with planks added till they were
cased in as with a roof, whence their name camarae, and so they
rolled about in the waves, having prow and stern alike and
convertible rowlocks, so that it was a matter of indifference
and equally safe, or perhaps unsafe, whichever way they
rowed.

Similar vessels were constructed by Germanicus in his north
German campaign (Ann. ii. 6) and by the Suiones (Ger. 44).
These also had stem and stern alike, and remind us of the old
Norse construction, being rowed either way, having the oars
loose in the rowlock, and not, as was usual in the south, attached
by a thong to the thowl pin.

Lastly, as a class of boat directly descended from the raft,
we may notice the flat-bottomed boats or punts or lighters which
plied on the Tiber as ferry-boats, or carrying go'ods, which were
called codicariae from caudex, the old word for a plank.

It is difficult to trace any order of development in the construc-
tion of boats during the Byzantine period, or the middle ages.
Sea-going vessels according to their size carried one or more
boats, some of them small boats with two or four oars, others
boats of a larger size fitted with masts and sail as well as with
oars. We find lembus and phaselus as generic names in the
earlier period, but the indications as to size and character are
vague and variable. The same may be said of the batelli, coquets,
chaloupes,chalans, gattes, &c, of which, in almost endless number
and variety, the nautical erudition of M. Jal has collected the
names in his monumental works, Archeologie navale and the
Glossaire naulique.

It is clear, however, that in many instances the names,
originally applied to boats properly so called, gradually attached
themselves to larger vessels, as in the case of chaloupe and others,
a fact which leads to the conclusion that the type of build
followed originally in smaller vessels was often developed on a
larger scale, according as it was found useful and convenient,
while the name remained the same. Many of these types still
survive and may be found in the Eastern seas, or in the Mediter-
ranean or in the northern waters, each of which has its own
peculiarities of build and rig.

It would be impossible within our limits to do justice to the
number and variety of existing types in sea-going boats, and for
more detailed information concerning them the reader
would do well to consult Mast and Sail in Europe and E x,stIa z
Asia, by H. Warington Smyth, an excellent and
exhaustive work, from which much of the information which
follows regarding them has been derived.

In the Eastern seas the Chinese sanpan is ubiquitous. Origin-
ally a small raft of three timbers with fore end upturned, it grew
into a boat in very early times, and has given its name to a very
large class of vessels. With flat bottom, and considerable width
in proportion to its length, the normal sanpan runs out into two
tails astern, the timbers rounding up, and the end being built
in like a bulkhead, with room for the rudder to work between
it and the transom which connects the two projecting upper
timbers of the stern. Some of them are as much as 30 ft. in

9 8

BOAT

length and 8 to 10 ft. in beam. They are good carriers and
speedy under sail.

The Chinese in all probability were the earliest of all peoples
to solve the chief problems of boat building, and after their own
fashion to work out the art of navigation, which for them has
now been set and unchanged for thousands of years. They
appear to have used the lee-board and centre-board in junks and
sanpans, and to have extended their trade to India and even
beyond, centuries before anything like maritime enterprise is
heard of in the north of Europe.

As regards the practice of long boat racing on rivers or tidal
waters the Chinese are easily antecedent in time to the rest of
the world. On great festivals in certain places the Dragon boat
race forms part of the ceremony. The Dragon boats are just
over 73 ft. long, with 4 ft. beam, and depth 21 in. The rowing
or paddling space is about 63 ft. and the number of thwarts 27,
thus giving exactly the same number of rowers as that of the
Zygites in the Greek trireme. The two extremities of the boat
are much cambered and rise to about 2 ft. above the water. At
about 1 5 ft. from each end the single plank gives place to three,
so as to offer a concave surface to the water. The paddle blade
is spade-like in form and about 65 in. broad.

Both in Siam and Burma there is a very large river population,
and boat racing is on festival days a common amusement. The
typical craft, however, is the Duck-boat, which in the shape of
hull is in direct contrast to the dug-out form, and primarily
intended for sailing. It is interesting to note that the Siamese
method of slinging and using quarter rudders is the oldest used
by men in sailing craft, being in fact the earliest development
from the simple paddle rudder, which has in all ages been the
first method of steering boats. The king of Siam's state barge,
we are told, is steered by long paddles, precisely in the same way
as is figured in the case of the Egyptian boats of the 3rd dynasty
(6000 B.C.). On the other hand the slung quarter rudders are the
same in fashion as those used by Roman and Greek merchantmen,
by Norsemen and Anglo-Saxons, and by medieval seamen down
to about the 14th century.

The Malays have generally the credit of being expert boat-
builders, but the local conditions are not such as to favour the
construction of a good type of boat. " Small displacement,
hollow lines, V-shaped sections, shallow draught and lack of
beam " result in want of stability and weatherliness. But it is
among them that the ancient process of dug-out building still
survives and flourishes, preserving all the primitive and ingenious
methods of hollowing the tree trunk, of forcing its sides outwards,
and in many cases building them up with added planks, so that
from the dug-out a regular boat is formed, with increased though
limited carrying power, increased though still hardly sufficient
stability.

To ensure this last very necessary quality many devices and
contrivances are resorted to.

In some cases (just as Ulysses is described as doing by Homer,
Od. v. 256) the boatman fastens bundles of reeds or of bamboos
all along the sides of his boat. These being very buoyant not
only act as a defence against the wash of the waves, but are
sufficient to keep the boat afloat in any sea.

But the most characteristic device is the outrigger, a piece of
floating wood sharpened at both ends, which is fixed parallel to
the longer axis of the boat, at a distance of two or three beams,
by two or more poles laid at right angles to it. This, while not
interfering materially with the speed of the boat, acts as a
counterpoise to any pressure on it which would tend, owing to its
lack of stability, to upset it, and makes it possible for the long
narrow dug-out to face even the open sea. It is remarkable
that this invention, which must have been seen by the Egyptians
and Phoenicians in very early times, was not introduced by them
into the Mediterranean. Possibly this was owing to the lack of
large timber suitable for dug-outs, and the consequent evolution
by them of boat from raft, with sufficient beam to rely upon for
stability.

On the other hand in the boats of India the influence of
Egyptian and Arab types of build is apparent, and the dinghy of

the Hugh is cited as being in form strangely like the ancient
Egyptian model still preserved in the Ghizeh museum. Coming
westward the dominant type of build is that of the Arab dhow,
the boat class of which has all the characteristics of the larger
vessel developed from it, plenty of beam, overhanging stem and
transom stern. The planking of the shell over the wooden frame
has a double thickness which conduces to dryness and durability
in the craft.

On the Nile it is interesting to find the naggar preserving, in its
construction out of blocks of acacia wood pinned together, the
old-world fashion of building described by Herodotus. The
gaiassa and dahabiah are too large to be classed as boats, but they
and their smaller sisters follow the Arab type in build and rig.

It is noteworthy that nothing apparently of the ancient
Egyptian or classical methods of build survives in the Mediter-
ranean, while the records of the development of boat-building
in the middle ages are meagre arid confusing. The best illustra-
tions of ancient methods of construction, and of ancient seaman-
ship, are to be found, if anywhere, in the East, that conservative
storehouse of types and fashions, to which they were either
communicated, or from which they were borrowed, by Egyptians
or Phoenicians, from whom they were afterwards copied by
Greeks and Romans.

In the Mediterranean the chief characteristics of the types
belonging to it are " carvel-build, high bow, round stern and
deep rudder hung on stern post outside the vessel."

In the eastern basin the long-bowed wide-sterned caique of the
Bosporus is perhaps the type of boat best known, but both Greek
and Italian waters abound with an unnumbered variety of boats
of " beautiful lines and great carrying power." In the Adriatic,
the Venetian gondola, and the light craft generally, are of the
type developed from the raft, flat-bottomed, and capable of
navigating shallow waters with minimum of draught and
maximum of load.

In the western basin the majority of the smaller vessels are of
the sharp-sterned build. Upon the boats of the felucca class,
long vessels with easy lines and low free-board, suitable for
rowing as well as sailing, the influence of the long galley of the
middle ages was apparent. In Genoese waters at the beginning
of the 19th century there were single-decked rowing vessels,
which preserved the name of galley, and were said to be the
descendants of the Liburnians that defeated the many-banked
vessels of Antonius at Actium. But the introduction of steam
vessels has already relegated into obscurity these memorials
of the past.

Along the Riviera and the Spanish coast a type of boat is
noticeable which is peculiar for the inward curve of both stem
and stern from a keel which has considerable camber, enabling
them to be beached in a heavy surf.

On the Douro, in Portugal, it is said that the boats which may
be seen laden with casks of wine, trailing behind them an
enormously long steering paddle, are of Phoenician ancestry,
and that the curious signs, which many of them have painted on
the cross board over the cabin, are of Semitic origin though now
undecipherable.

Coming to the northern waters, as with men, so with boats,
we meet with a totally different type. Instead of the smooth
exterior of the carvel-build, we have the more rugged form of
clinker-built craft with great beam, and raking sterns and stems,
and a wide flare forward. In the most northern waters the
strakes of the sea-going boats are wide and of considerable
thickness, of oak or fir, often compacted with wooden trenails,
strong and fit to do battle with the rough seas and rough usage
which they have to endure.

In most of these the origin of form and character is to be
sought for in the old Viking vessels or long keeles of the 5th century
A.D., with curved and elevated stem and stern posts, and without
decks or, at the most, half decked.

In the Baltic and the North Sea most of the fishing boats
follow this type, with, however, considerable variety in details.
It is noticeable that here also, as in other parts of the world, and
at other times, the pressing demand for speed and carrying power

BOAT

has increased the size in almost all classes of boats till they pass
into the category of ships. At the same time the carvel-build is
becoming more common, while, in the struggle for life, steam and
motor power are threatening to obliterate the old types of rowing
and sailing boats altogether.

Next to the Norse skiff and its descendants, perhaps the oldest
type of boat in northern waters is to be found in Holland,
where the conditions of navigation have hardly altered for
centuries. It is to the Dutch that we chiefly owe the original
of our pleasure craft, but, though we have developed these
enormously, the Dutch boats have remained pretty much the
same. The clinker-build and the wide rounded bow are now
very much of the same character as they are represented in the
old pictures of the 17th and 18th centuries.

The development of boat-building in the British Isles during
the 19th century has been unceasing and would need a treatise
to itself to do it justice. The expansion of the fishing industry
and the pressure of competition have stimulated constant
improvement in the craft engaged, and here also are observable
the same tendencies to substitute carvel, though it is more
expensive, for clinker build, and to increase the length and size
of the boats, and the gradual supersession of sail and oar by steam
Dower. Under these influences we hear of the fifie and the
skqffie classes, old favourites in northern waters, being superseded
by the more modern Zulu, which is supposed to unite the good
qualities of both; and these in turn running to such a size as to
take them outside the category of boats. But even in the case
of smaller boats the Zulu model is widely followed, so that they
have actually been imported to the Irish coast for the use of the
crofter fishermen in the congested districts.

For the Shetland sexem and the broad boats of the Orkneys,
and the nabbies of the west coast of Scotland, the curious will do
well to refer to H. Warington Smyth's most excellent account.

On the eastern coast of England the influence of the Dutch
type of build is manifest in many of the flat-bottomed and mostly
round-ended craft, such as the Yorkshire Billyboy, and partly in
the coble, which latter is interesting as built for launching off
beaches against heavy seas, and as containing relics of Norse
influence, though in the main of Dutch origin.

The life-boats of the eastern coast are in themselves an admir-
able class of boat, with fine lines, great length, and shallow
draught, wonderful in their daring work in foul weather and
heavy seas, in which as a rule their services are required. Here,
however, as in the fishing boats, the size is increasing, and steam
is appropriating to itself the provinces of the sail and the oar.

The wherry of the Norfolk Broads has a type of its own, and is
often fitted out as a pleasure boat. It is safe and comfortable for
inland waters, but not the sort of boat to live in a sea-way in
anything but good weather.

The Thames and its estuary rejoice in a great variety of boats,
of which the old Peter boat (so called after the legend of the
foundation of the abbey on Thorney Island) preserved a very
ancient type of build, shorter and broader than the old Thames
pleasure wherry. But these and the old hatch boat have now
almost disappeared. Possibly survivors may still be seen on the
upper part of the tidal river. Round the English coast from the
mouth of the Thames southwards the conditions of landing and
of hauling up boats above high-water mark affect the type,
demanding strong clinker-build and stout timbers. Hence there
is a strong family resemblance in most of the short boats in use
from the North Foreland round to Brighton. Among these are
the life-boats of Deal and the other Channel ports, which have
done and are still doing heroic work in saving life from wrecks
upon the Goodwins and the other dangerous shoals that beset
the narrowing sleeve of the English Channel.

Farther down, along the southern coast, and to the west, where
harbours are more frequent, a finer and deeper class of boats,
chiefly of carvel-build, is to be found. The Cornish ports are the
home of a great boat-building industry, and from them a large
number of the finest fishing boats in the world are turned out
annually. Most of them are built with stem and stern alike, with
full and bold quarters, and ample floor.

13* 4' 8"

4' 6"
5' 6"

27 5' 6"

30 5' 6"

8'i"

2' 8$'

10' 2"

3' 5"

n' 6"

4' 6"

It is not possible here to enumerate, much less to describe
in detail, the variety of types in sea-going boats which have
been elaborated in England and in America. For this purpose
reference should be made to the list of works given at the end oi
the article.

The following is a list of the boats at present used in the royal
navy. They have all of them a deep fore foot, and with the
exception of the whalers and Berthon boats, upright stems and
transom sterns. The whalers have a raking stem and a sharp
stern, and a certain amount of sheer in the bows.

Length. Beam. Depth.
Feet. Ft. In. Ft. In.

la. Dinghy. Freeboard about 9 in.

Weight 3 cwt. 2 qr. Between

thwarts 2 ft. 9 in. Elm
lb. Skiff dinghy for torpedo boats. Free-
board about 9 in. Carry about

ten men in moderate weather.

Between thwarts 2 ft. 7J in.

Weight 3 cwt. 4B5. Yellow pine .
2a. Whaler for destroyers. 5 in. sheer.

Yellow pine

2b. Whaler. Between thwarts 2 ft. 10 in.

Freeboard about 12 in. Weight,

8 cwt. Strakes No. 13. Lap

f in. Elm

(All have bilge strakes with hand-holes.)

3. Gig. Between thwarts 2 ft. 9J in.

Weight 8 cwt. 2 qr. 15 lb. 13
Strakes. Elm

4. Cutter. Between thwarts 3 ft. 1 in.

To carry 49 men. Carvel built

5. Pinnace. Between thwarts 3 ft.

Carvel-built. Elm ....

6. Launch. Between thwarts 3 ft. 1 in.

To carry 140 men. Double skin
diagonal. Teak ....

7. Berthon collapsible boats weighing

7 cwt. for destroyers.

With the exception of the larger classes, viz. cutters, pinnaces
and launches, the V-shape of bottom is still preserved, which
does not tend to stability, and it is difficult to see why the
smaller classes have not followed the improvement made in their
larger sisters.

Though the number and variety of sea-going boats is of much
greater importance, no account of boats in general would be com-
plete without reference to the development of pleasure
craft upon rivers and inland waters, especially in '^lats'and
England, during the past century. There is a legend, racing.
dating from Saxon times, which tells of King Edgar
the Peaceable being rowed on the Dee from his palace in Chester
to the church of St John, by eight kings, himself the ninth,
steering this ancient 8-oar; but not much is heard of rowing
in England until 1453, when John Norman, lord mayor of
London, set the example of going by water to Westminster,
which, we are told, made him popular with the watermen of his
day, as in consequence the use of pleasure boats by the citizens
became common. Thus it was that the old Thames pleasure
wherry, with its high bows and low sharp stern and V-shaped
section, and the old skiff came into vogue, both of which have
now given way to boats, mostly of clinker-build, but with
rounder bottoms and greater depth, safer and more comfortable
to row in.

In 171 s Thomas Doggett (q.v.) founded a race which is still
rowed in peculiar sculling boats, straked, and with sides flaring
up to the sill of the rowlock. Strutt tells us of a regatta in 1775
in which watermen contended in pair-oared boats or skiffs.

At the beginning of the 19th century numerous rowing clubs
flourished on the upper tidal waters of the Thames, and we hear
of four-oared races from Westminster to Putney, and from
Putney to Kew, in what we should now consider large and
heavy boats, clinker-built, with bluff entry.

Longer boats, 8-oars, and 10-oars, seem to have been ex-
istent at the end of the 18th century. Eton certainly had one
10-oar, and three 8-oars, and two 6-oars, before 1811. The
record of 8-oar races at Oxford begins in 1815, at Cambridge in

IOO

BOATSWAIN— BOBER

1827. Pair-oar and sculling races in lighter boats seem to have
come in soon after 1820, and the first Oxford and Cambridge
eight-oared race was rowed in 1829, in which year also Eton
and Westminster contended at Putney.

Henley regatta was founded in 1839, and since that date the
building of racing boats, eights, fours, pairs, and sculling boats,
has made great progress. The products of the present time are
such, in lightness of build and swiftness of propulsion, as
would have been thought impossible between 1810 and 1830.

In the middle of the 19th century the long boats in use were
mostly clinker-built with a keel. At Oxford the torpids were
rowed, as now, in clinker-built craft, but the summer races
were rowed in carvel-built boats, which also had a keel.

In 1855 the first keelless 8-oar made its appearance at
Henley, built by Mat Taylor for the Royal Chester Rowing Club.
The new type was constructed on moulds, bottom upwards,
a cedar skin bent and fitted on to the moulds, and the ribs built
in after the boat had been turned over.

In 1857 Oxford rowed in a similar boat at Putney, 55 ft. long,
25 in. beam. From that time the keelless racing boat has held
its own, fours and pairs and sculling boats all following suit.
But with the introduction of sliding seats racing eights have
developed in length to 63 ft. or more, with considerable camber,
and a beam of 23-24 in. There are, however, still advocates of
the shorter type with broader beam, and it is noticeable that
the Belgian boat that won the Grand Challenge at Henley in
1906 did not exceed 60 ft. The boat in which Oxford won the
University race in 1901 was 56 ft. long with 27 in. of beam.

In sculling boats the acceptance of the Australian type of
build has led to the construction of a much shorter boat with
broader beam than that which was in vogue twenty years ago.
The same tendency has not shown itself so pronouncedly in pair
oars, but will no doubt be manifest in time as the build improves.
In fact we may expect the controversy between long and short
racing boats, and the proper method of propelling them re-
spectively, to be carried a step farther. The tendency, with the
long slide, and long type of boat, is to try to avoid "pinch"
by adopting the scullers' method of easy beginning, and strong
drive with the legs, and sharp finish to follow, but it remains
to be seen whether superior pace is not to be obtained in a
shorter boat by sharp beginning at a reasonable angle to
the boat's side, and a continuous drive right out to the finish
of the stroke.

Appended is a list of pleasure boats in use (1909) on the
Thames, with their measurements (in feet and inches).

Depth.
9" to 10"
9" to 10"
8" to 9"
13" from keel to

top of stem
7" to 8"
51" to 6"
iol" to 14"
12"

9i'

15" to 16"

13" from keel to

top of stem
6" from keel to

top of stem
12" over all
6" to 7"
9" to 10J"
12" to 13"

Authorities. — For ancient boats: Diet. Ant., " Navis "; C. Torr,
Ancient Ships; Smith, Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul; Graser,
De re navali; Breusing, Die Nautik der Alten; Contre-amiral Serre,
La Marine des anciens; Jules Var, V Art nautique dans Vantiquite.
Medieval: Jal, Archeologie navale, and Glossaire nautique; Marquis
de Folin, Bateaux et navires, progris de la construction navale;
W. S. Lindsay, History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce.
Modern: H. Warington Smyth, Mast and Sail in Europe and Asia;
Dixon Kempe, Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing; H. C. Folkhard,
The Sailing Boat; F. G. Aflalo, The Sea Fishing Industry of England
and Wales; R. C. Leslie, Old Sea Wings, &c. (E. Wa.)

Class of Boat.

Length.

Beam.

Racing eight

• 56' to 63'

23" to 27"

Clinker eight .

. 56' to 60'

24" to 27"

Clinker four

. 38' to 42'

23" to 24"

Tub fours .

• 3°' to 32'

3'8"- 3 ' 10"

Outrigger pair

30' to 34'

14" to 16"

Outrigger sculls

• 25' to 30'

10" to 13"

Coaching gigs .

. 26' to 28'

3' to 3' 4"

Skiffs (Thames)

. 24' to 26'

3' 9" to 4'

Skiffs (Eton) .

27'

2/ 3"

Gigs (pleasure) .

. 24' to 26'

Randans

. 27' to 30'

4' to 4' 6"

Whiffs . . .

20' to 23'

1' 4" to i'6"

Whiff Gigs

19' to 20'

2' 8" to 2' 10"

Punts racers

30' to 34'

1' 3" to 1' 6"

,, semi racers

28' to 30'

„ pleasure

26' to 28'

2' 9" to 3'

BOATSWAIN (pronounced " bo 'sun "; derived from " boat "
and " swain," a servant), the warrant officer of the navy who
in sailing-ships had particular charge of the boats, sails, rigging,
colours, anchors and cordage. He superintended the rigging
of the ship in dock, and it was his duty to summon the crew
to work by a whistle. The office still remains, though with
functions modified by the introduction of steam. In a merchant
ship the boatswain is the foreman of the crew and is sometimes
also third or fourth mate.

BOBBILI, a town of British India, in the Vizagapatam district
of Madras, 70 m. north of Vizagapatam town. Pop. (1901)
17,387. It is the residence of a raja of old family, whose estate
covers an area of 227 sq. m.; estimated income, £40,000;
permanent land revenue, £9000.

The attack on the fort at Bobbili made by General Bussy in
1756 is one of the most memorable episodes in Indian history.
There was a constant feud between the chief of Bobbili and the
raja of Vizianagram; and when Bussy marched to restore order
the raja persuaded him that the fault lay with the chief of
Bobbili and joined the French with 11,000 men against his rival.
In spite of the fact that the French field-pieces at once made
practicable breaches in the mud walls of the fort, the defenders
held out with desperate valour. Two assaults were repulsed
after hours of hand-to-hand fighting; and when, after a fresh
bombardment, the garrison saw that their case was hopeless,
they killed their women and children, and only succumbed at
last to a third assault because every man of them was either
killed or mortally wounded. An old man, however, crept out
of a hut with a child, whom he presented to Bussy as the son
of the dead chief. Three nights later four followers of the chief
of Bobbili crept into the tent of the raja of Vizianagram and
stabbed him to death. The child, Chinna Ranga Rao, was
invested by Bussy with his father's estate, but during his minority
it was seized by his uncle. After a temporary arrangement of
terms with the raja of Vizianagram the old feud broke out again,
and the Bobbili chief was forced to take refuge in the nizam's
country. In 1794, however, on the break-up of the Vizianagram
estate, Chinna Ranga Rao was restored by the British, and
in 1801 a permanent settlement was made with his son. The
title of raja was recognized as hereditary in the family; that
of maharaja was conferred as a personal distinction on Sir
Venkataswetachalapati Ranga Rao, K.C.I.E., the adopted
great-great-grandson of Chinna Ranga Rao.

For the siege see Imp. Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908), s. v.
" Bobbili Estate."

BOBBIO, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the
province of Pa via, 32! m. S.W. of Piacenza by road. Pop.
(1901) 4848. Its most important building is the church dedicated
to St Columban, who became first abbot of Bobbio in 595 or 612,
and died there in 615. It was erected in Lombard style in the
nth or 1 2th century (to which period the campanile belongs)
and restored in the 13th. The cathedral is also interesting.
Bobbio was especially famous for the manuscripts which belonged
to the monastery of St Columban, and are now dispersed, the
greater part being in the Vatican library at Rome, and others
at Milan and Turin. The cathedral archives contain documents
of the 10th and nth centuries.

See M. Stokes, Six Months in the Apennines (London, 1892), 154
seq.; C. Cipolla, in L 'Arte (1904), 241.

BOBER, a river of Germany, the most considerable of the
left bank tributaries of the Oder; it rises at an altitude of 2440 ft.,
on the northern (Silesian) side of the Riesengebirge. In its
upper course it traverses a higher plateau, whence, after passing
the town of Landeshut, it descends through a narrow and fertile
valley to Kupferberg. Here its romantic middle course begins,
and after dashing through a deep ravine between the towns of
Hirschberg and Lowenberg, it gains the plain. In its lower
course it meanders through pleasant pastures, bogland and pine
forests in succession, receives the waters of various mountain
streams, passes close by Bunzlau and through Sagan, and finally,
after a course of 160 m., joins the Oder at Crossen. Swollen by
the melting of the winter snows and by heavy rains in the

BOBRUISK— BOCAGE

IOI

mountains, it is frequently a torrent, and is thus, except in the
last few miles, unnavigable for either boats or rafts.

BOBRUISK, a town and formerly a first-class fortress of
Russia, in the government of Minsk, and ioo m. by rail S.E.
of the town of Minsk, in 53° 15' N. lat. and 28° 52' E. long., on
the right bank of the Berezina river, and on the railway from
Libau and Vilna to Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (i860) 23,761; (1897)
35,177, of whom one-half were Jews. In the reign of Alexander I.
there was erected here, at the confluence of the Bobruiska with
the Berezina, nearly a mile from the town, a fort, which success-
fully withstood a bombardment by Napoleon in 181 2, and was
made equal to the best in Europe by the emperor Nicholas I.
It was demolished in 1897, the defences being antiquated. The
town has a military hospital and a departmental college. There
are ironworks and flour-mills; and corn and timber are shipped
to Libau. The town was half burnt down in 1902.

BOCAGE, MANUEL MARIA BARBOSA DE (1765-1805),
Portuguese poet, was a native of Setubal. His father had held
important judicial and administrative appointments, and his
mother, from whom he took his last surname, was the daughter
of a Portuguese vice-admiral of French birth who had fought
at the battle of Matapan. Bocage began to make verses in
infancy, and being somewhat of a prodigy grew up to be flattered,
self-conscious and unstable. At the age of fourteen, he suddenly
left school and joined the 7th infantry regiment; but tiring of
garrison life at Setubal after' two years, he decided to enter the
navy. He proceeded to the royal marine academy in Lisbon,
but instead of studying he pursued love adventures, and for the
next five years burnt incense on many altars, while his retentive
memory and extraordinary talent for improvisation gained him
a host of admirers and turned his head. The Brazilian modinhas,
little rhymed poems sung to a guitar at family parties, were then
in great vogue, and Bocage added to his fame by writing a number
of these, by his skill in extemporizing verses on a given theme,
and by allegorical idyllic pieces, the subjects of which are similar
to those of Watteau's and Boucher's pictures. In 1786 he was
appointed gimrdamarinha in the Indian navy, and he reached
Goa by way of Brazil in October. There he came into an ignorant
society full of petty intrigue, where his particular talents found
no scope to display themselves; the glamour of the East left
him unmoved and the climate brought on a serious illness. In
these circumstances he compared the heroic traditions of Portugal
in Asia, which had induced him to leave home, with the reality,
and wrote his satirical sonnets on " The Decadence of the
Portuguese Empire in Asia," and those addressed to Affonso
de Albuquerque and D. Joao de Castro. The irritation caused
by these satires, together with rivalries in love affairs, made it
advisable for him to leave Goa, and early in 1 789 he obtained the
post of lieutenant of the infantry company at Damaun; but
he promptly deserted and made his way to Macao, where he
arrived in July- August. According to a modern tradition much
of the Lusiads had been written there, and Bocage probably
travelled to China under the influence of Camoens, to whose life
and misfortunes he loved to compare his own. Though he
escaped the penalty of his desertion, he had no resources and
lived on friends, whose help enabled him to return to Lisbon in
the middle of the following year.

Once back in Portugal he found his old popularity, and
resumed his vagabond existence. The age was one of reaction
against the Pombaline reforms, and the famous, intendant of
police, Manique, in his determination to keep out French revolu-
tionary and atheistic propaganda, forbade the importation of
foreign classics and the discussion of all liberal ideas. Hence
the only vehicle of expression left was satire, which Bocage
employed with an unsparing hand. His poverty compelled him
to eat and sleep with friends like the turbulent friar Jose Agos ;
tinho de Macedo (q.v.), and he soon fell under suspicion with
Manique. He became a member of the New Arcadia, a literary
society founded in 1790, under the name of Elmano Sadino, but
left it three years later. Though including in its ranks most
of the poets of the time, the New Arcadia produced little of
real merit, and before long its adherents became enemies and

descended to an angry warfare of words. But Bocage's reputa-
tion among the general public and with foreign travellers grew
year by year. Beckford, the author of Vathek, for instance,
describes him as " a pale, limber, odd-looking young man, the
queerest but perhaps the most original of God's poetical creatures.
This strange and versatile character may be said to possess
the true wand of enchantment which at the will of its master
either animates or petrifies." In 1797 enemies of Bocage belong-
ing to the New Arcadia delated him to Manique, who on the
pretext afforded by some anti-religious verses, the Epistola
a Marilia, and by his loose life, arrested him when he was about
to flee the country and lodged him in the Limoeiro, where he
spent his thirty-second birthday. His sufferings induced him
to a speedy recantation, and after much importuning of friends,
he obtained his transfer in November from the state prison to
that of the Inquisition, then a mild tribunal, and shortly after-
wards recovered his liberty. He returned to his bohemian life
and subsisted by writing empty Elogios Dramaticos for the
theatres, printing volumes of verses and translating the didactic
poems of Delillc, Castel and others, some second-rate French
plays and Ovid's Metamorphoses. These resources and the help
of brother Freemasons just enabled him to exist, and a purifying
influence came into his life in the shape of a real affection for the
two beautiful daughters of D. Antonio Bersane Leite, which
drew from him verses of true feeling mixed with regrets for the
past. He would have married the younger lady, D. Anna
Perpetua (Analia), but excesses had ruined his health. In 1801
his poetical rivalry with Macedo became more acute and personal,
and ended by drawing from Bocage a stinging extempore poem,
Pena de Taliao, which remains a monument to his powers of
invective. In 1804 the malady from which he suffered increased,
and the approach of death inspired some beautiful sonnets,
including one directed to D. Maria (Maroia), elder sister of
Analia, who visited and consoled him. He became reconciled
to his enemies, and breathed his last on the 21st of December
1805. His end recalled that of Camoens, for he expired in
poverty on the eve of the French invasion, while the singer of
the Lusiads just failed to see the occupation of Portugal by the
duke of Alva's army. The gulf that divides the life and.achieve-
ments of these two poets is accounted for, less by difference of
talent and temperament than by their environment, and it
gives an accurate measure of the decline of Portugal in the two
centuries that separate 1580 from 1805.

To Beckford, Bocage was " a powerful genius," and Link
was struck by his nervous expression, harmonious versification
and the fire of his poetry. He employed every variety of lyric
and made his mark in all. His roundels are good, his epigrams
witty, his satires rigorous and searching, his odes often full of
nobility, but his fame must rest on his sonnets, which almost
rival those of Camoens in power, elevation of thought and tender
melancholy, though they lack the latter's scholarly refinement
of phrasing. So dazzled were contemporary critics by his
brilliant and inspired extemporizations that they ignored
Bocage's licentiousness, and overlooked the slightness of his
creative output and the artificial character of most of his
poetry. In 1871 a monument was erected to the poet in the
chief square of Setubal, and the centenary of his death was
kept there with much circumstance in 1905.

The best editions of his collected works are those of I. F. da
Silva, with a biographical and literary study by Rebello da Silva, in
6 vols. (Lisbon, 1853), and of Dr Theophilo Braga, in 8 vols. (Oporto,
1875-1876). See also I. F. da Silva. Diccionario Bibliographico
Portuguez, vol. vi. pp. 45-53, and vol. xvi. pp. 260-264; Dr T. Braga,
Bocage, sua vida e epocalitteraria, (Oporto, 1902). A striking portrait
of Bocage by H. J. da Silva was engraved by Bartolozzi, who spent
his last years in Lisbon. (E. Pr.)

BOCAGE (from 0. Fr. boscage, Late Lat. boscum, a wood), a
French topographical term applied to several regions of France,
the commonest characteristics of which are a granite formation
and an undulating or hilly surface, consisting largely of heath
or reclaimed land, and dotted with clumps of trees. The
most important districts designated by the word are (1) the
Bocage of Normandy, which comprises portions of the

102

BOCCACCIO

departments of Calvados, Manche and Orne; (2) the Bocage of
Vendee, situated in the departments of Vendee, Deux-Sevres,
Maine-et-Loire, and Loire-Inferieure.

BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI (1313-1375), Italian author, whose
Decameron is one of the classics of literature, was born in 13 13,
as we know from a letter of Petrarch, in which that poet,
who was born in 1304, calls himself the senior of his friend by-
nine years. The place of his birth is somewhat doubtful —
Florence, Paris and Certaldo being all mentioned by various
writers as his native city. Boccaccio undoubtedly calls himself
a Florentine, but this may refer merely to the Florentine citizen-
ship acquired by his grandfather. The claim of Paris has been
supported by Baldelli and Tiraboschi, mainly on the ground
that his mother was a lady of good family in that city, where
she met Boccaccio's father. There is a good deal in favour of
Certaldo, a small town or castle in the valley of the Elsa, 20 m.
from Florence, where the family had some property, and where
the poet spent much of the latter part of his life. He always
signed his name Boccaccio da Certaldo, and named that town
as his birthplace in his own epitaph. Petrarch calls his friend
Certaldese; and Filippo Villani, a contemporary, distinctly says
that Boccaccio was born in Certaldo.

Boccaccio, an illegitimate son, as is put beyond dispute by the
fact that a special licence had to be obtained when he desired
to become a priest, was brought up with tender care by his
father, who seems to have been a merchant of respectable rank.
His elementary education he received from Giovanni da Strada,
an esteemed teacher of grammar in Florence. But at an early
age he was apprenticed to an eminent merchant, with whom he
remained for six years, a time entirely lost to him, if we may
believe his own statement. For from his tenderest years his soul
was attached to that " alma poesis," which, on his tombstone,
he names as the task and study of his life. In one of his works
he relates that, in his seventh year, before he had ever seen
a book of poetry or learned the rules of metrical composition,
he began to write verse in his childish fashion, and earned for
himself amongst his friends the name of " the poet." It is un-
certain where Boccaccio passed these six years of bondage;
most likely he followed his master to various centres of commerce
in Italy and France. We know at least that he was in Naples
and Paris for some time, and the youthful impressions received
in the latter city, as well as the knowledge of the French
language acquired there, were of considerable influence on his
later career. Yielding at last to his son's immutable aversion
to commerce, the elder Boccaccio permitted him to adopt a
course of study somewhat more congenial to the literary tastes
of the young man. He was sent to a celebrated professor of
canon law, at that time an important field of action both to the
student and the practical jurist. According to some accounts
—far from authentic, it is true — this professor was Cino da
Pistoia, the friend of Dante, and himself a celebrated poet and
scholar. But, whoever he may have been, Boccaccio's master
was unable to inspire his pupil with scientific ardour. " Again,"
Boccaccio says, " I lost nearly six years. And so nauseous was
this study to my mind, that neither the teaching of my master,
nor the authority and command of my father, nor yet the
exertions and reproof of my friends, could make me take to it,
for my love of poetry was invincible."

About 1333 Boccaccio settled for some years at Naples,
apparently sent there by his father to resume his mercantile
pursuits, the canon law being finally abandoned. The place,
it must be confessed, was little adapted to lead to a practical
view of life one in whose heart the love of poetry was firmly
rooted. The court of King Robert of Anjou at Naples was
frequented by many Italian and French men of letters, the great
Petrarch amongst the number. At the latter's public examina-
tion in the noble science of poetry by the king, previous to his
receiving the laurel crown at Rome, Boccaccio was present, —
without, however, making his personal acquaintance at this
period. In the atmosphere of this gay court, enlivened and
adorned by the wit of men and the beauty of women, Boccaccio
lived for several years. We can imagine how the tedious duties

of the market and the counting-house became more and mort
distasteful to his aspiring nature. We are told that, finding
himself by chance on the supposed grave of Virgil, near Naples,
Boccaccio on that sacred spot took the firm resolution of devoting
himself for ever to poetry. But perhaps another event, which
happened some time after, led quite as much as the first-men-
tioned occurrence to this decisive turning-point in his life. On
Easter-eve, 1341, in the church of San Lorenzo, Boccaccio saw
for the first time the natural daughter of King Robert, Maria,
whom he immortalized as Fiammetta in the noblest creations
of his muse. Boccaccio's passion on seeing her was instantaneous,
and (if we may accept as genuine the confessions contained in
one of her lover's works) was returned with equal ardour on the
part of the lady. But not till after much delay did she yield to
the amorous demands of the poet, in spite of her honour and her
duty as the wife of another. All the information we have with
regard to Maria or Fiammetta is derived from the works of
Boccaccio himself, and owing to several apparently contradictory
statements occurring in these works, the very existence of the
lady has been doubted by commentators, who seem to forget
that, surrounded by the chattering tongues of a court, and
watched perhaps by a jealous husband, Boccaccio had all possible
reason to give the appearance of fictitious incongruity to the
effusions of his real passion. But there seems no more reason to
call into question the main features of the story, or even the
identity of the person, than there would be in the case of Petrarch's
Laura or of Dante's Beatrice. It has been ingeniously pointed
out by Baldelli, that the fact of her descent from King Robert
being known only to Maria herself, and through her to Boccaccio,
the latter was the more at liberty to refer to this circumstance, — •
the bold expression of the truth serving in this case to increase
the mystery with which the poets of the middle ages loved, or
were obliged, to surround the objects of their praise. From
Boccaccio's Ameto we learn that Maria's mother was, like his
own, a French lady, whose husband, according to Baldelli's
ingenious conjecture, was of the noble house of Aquino, and
therefore of the same family with the celebrated Thomas Aquinas.
Maria died, according to his account, long before her lover, who
cherished her memory to the end of his life, as we see from a
sonnet written shortly before his death.

The first work of Boccaccio, composed by him at Fiammetta's
command, was the prose tale, Filocopo, describing the romantic
love and adventures of Florio and Biancafiore, a favourite
subject with the knightly minstrels of France, Italy and Germany.
The treatment of the story by Boccaccio is not remarkable for
originality or beauty, and the narrative is encumbered by classical
allusions and allegorical conceits. The style also cannot be held
worthy of the future great master of Italian prose. Considering,
however, that this prose was in its infancy, and that this was
Boccaccio's first attempt at remoulding the unwieldy material
at his disposal, it would be unjust to deny that Filocopo is a
highly interesting work, full of promise and all but articulate
power. Another work, written about the same time by Fiam-
metta's desire and dedicated to her, is the Teseide, an epic poem,
and indeed the first heroic epic in the Italian language. The
name is chosen somewhat inappropriately, as King Theseus plays
a secondary part, and the interest of the story centres in the two
noble knights, Palemone and Arcito, and their wooing of the
beautiful Emelia. The Teseide is of particular interest to the
student of poetry, because it exhibits the first example of the
ottava rima, a metre which was adopted by Tasso and Ariosto,
and in English by Byron in Bon Juan. Another link between
Boccaccio's epic and English literature is formed by the fact of
Chaucer having in the Knight's Tale adopted its main features.

Boccaccio's poetry has been severely criticized by his country-
men, and most severely by the author himself. On reading
Petrarch's sonnets, Boccaccio resolved in a fit of despair to burn
his own attempts, and only the kindly encouragement of his
great friend prevented the holocaust. Posterity has justly
differed from the author's sweeping self-criticism. It is true,
that compared with Dante's grandeur and passion, and with
Petrarch's absolute mastership of metre, and language, Boccaccio's

BOCCACCIO

103

poetry seems to be somewhat thrown into shade. His verse is
occasionally slip-shod, and particularly his epic poetry lacks
what in modern parlance is called poetic diction, — the quality,
that is, which distinguishes the elevated pathos of the recorder
of heroic deeds from the easy grace of the mere conleur. This
latter feature, so charmingly displayed in Boccaccio's prose, has
to some extent proved fatal to his verse. At the same time, his
narrative is always fluent and interesting, and his lyrical pieces,
particularly the poetic interludes in the Decameron, abound with
charming gallantry, and frequently rise to lyrical pathos.

About the year 1341 Boccaccio returned to Florence by
command of his father, who in his old age desired the assistance
and company of his son. Florence, at that time disturbed by
civil feuds, and the silent gloom of his father's house could not
but appear in an unfavourable light to one accustomed to the
gay life of the Neapolitan court. But more than all this, Boccaccio
regretted the separation from his beloved Fiammetta. The
thought of her at once embittered and consoled his loneliness.
Three of his works owe their existence to this period. With all
of them Fiammetta is connected; of one of them she alone is the
subject. The first work, called Ameto, describes the civilizing
influence of love, which subdues the ferocious manners of the
savage with its gentle power. Fiammetta, although not the
heroine of the story, is amongst the nymphs who with their tales
of true love soften the mind of the huntsman. Ameto is written
in prose alternating with verse, specimens of which form occur
in old and middle Latin writings. It is more probable, however,
that Boccaccio adopted it from that sweetest and purest blossom
of medieval French literature, Aucassin et Nicolette, which dates
from the 13th century, and was undoubtedly known to him. So
pleased was Boccaccio with the idea embodied in the character
of Ameto that he repeated its essential features in the Cimone of
his Decameron (Day 5th, tale i.). The second work referred to is
a poem in fifty chapters, called U amorosa Visione. It describes
a dream in which the poet, guided by a lady, sees the heroes and
lovers of ancient and medieval times. Boccaccio evidently has
tried to imitate the celebrated Trionfi of Petrarch, but without
much success. There is little organic development in the poem,
which reads like the catalogue raisonne of a picture gallery; but
it is remarkable from another point of view. It is perhaps the
most astounding instance in literature of ingenuity wasted on
trifles; even Edgar Poe, had he known Boccaccio's puzzle,
must have confessed himself surpassed. For the whole of the
Amorosa Visione is nothing but an acrostic on a gigantic scale.
The poem is written, like the Divina Commedia, in terza rima, and
the initial letters of all the triplets throughout the work compose
three poems of considerable length, in the first of which the whole
is dedicated to Boccaccio's lady-love, this time under her real
name of Maria. In addition to this, the initial letters of the first,
third, fifth, seventh and ninth lines of the dedicatory poem form
the name of Maria; so that here we have the acrostic in the
second degree. No wonder that thus entrammelled the poet's
thought begins to flag and his language to halt. The third
important work written by Boccaccio during his stay at Florence,
or soon after his return to Naples, is called L' amorosa Fiammetta;
and although written in prose, it contains more real poetry than
the elaborate production just referred to. It purports to be
Fiammetta's complaint after her lover, following the call of
filial duty, had deserted her. Bitterly she deplores her fate, and
upbraids her lover with coldness and want of devotion. Jealous
fears add to her torture, not altogether unfounded, if we believe
the commentators' assertion that the heroine of Ameto is in
reality the beautiful Lucia, a Florentine lady loved by Boccaccio.
Sadly Fiammetta recalls the moments of former bliss, the first
meeting, the stolen embrace. Her narrative is indeed our chief
source of information for the incidents of this strange love-story.
It has been thought unlikely, and indeed impossible, that
Boccaccio should thus have become the mouthpiece of a real
lady's real passion for himself; but there seems nothing in-
congruous in the supposition that after a happy reunion the poet
should have heard with satisfaction, and surrounded with the
halo of ideal art, the story of his lady's sufferings. Moreover, the

language is too full of individual intensity to make the conjecture
of an entirely fictitious love affair intrinsicaUy probable. L' amo-
rosa Fiammetta is a monody of passion sustained even to the
verge of dulness, but strikingly real, and therefore artistically
valuable.

By the intercession of an influential friend, Boccaccio at last
obtained (in 1344) his father's permission to return to Naples,
where in the meantime Giovanna, grand-daughter of King Robert,
had succeeded to the crown. Being young and beautiful, fond of
poetry and of the praise of poets, she received Boccaccio with all
the distinction due to his literary fame. For many years she
remained his faithful friend, and the poet returned her favour
with grateful devotion. Even when the charge of having
instigated, or at least connived at, the murder of her husband
was but too clearly proved against her, Boccaccio was amongst
the few who stood by her, and undertook the hopeless task of
clearing her name from the dreadful stain. It was by her desire,
no less than by that of Fiammetta, that he composed (between
1344 and 1350) most of the stories of his Decameron, which
afterwards were collected and placed in the mouths of the
Florentine ladies and gentlemen. During this time he also
composed the Filostrato, a narrative poem, the chief interest of
which, for the English reader, lies in its connexion with Chaucer.
With a boldness pardonable only in men of genius, Chaucer
adopted the main features of the plot, and literally translated
1 parts of Boccaccio's work, without so much as mentioning the
name of his Italian source.

In 1350 Boccaccio returned to Florence, owing to the death
of his father, who had made him guardian to his younger brother
Jacopo. He was received with great distinction, and entered
the service of the Republic, being at various times sent on
important missions to the margrave of Brandenburg, and to the
courts of several popes, both in Avignon and Rome. Boccaccio
boasts of the friendly terms on which he had been with the great
potentates of Europe, the emperor and pope amongst the number.
But he was never a politician in the sense that Dante and
Petrarch were. As a man of the world he enjoyed the society
of the great, but his interest in the internal commotions of the
Florentine state seems to have been very slight. Besides, he
never liked Florence, and the expressions used by him regarding
his fellow-citizens betray anything but patriotic prejudice. In
a Latin eclogue he applies to them the term " Batrachos " (frogs),
by which, he adds parenthetically — Ego intclligo Florentinorum
morem; loquacissimi enim sumus, verum in rebus bellicis nihil
valemus. The only important result of Boccaccio's diplomatic
career was his intimacy with Petrarch. The first acquaintance
of these two great men dates from the year 1350, when Boccaccio,
then just returned to Florence, did all in his power to make the
great poet's short stay in that city agreeable. When in the
following year the Florentines were anxious to draw men of
great reputation to their newly-founded university, it was again
Boccaccio who insisted on the claims of Petrarch to the most
distinguished position. He himself accepted the mission of
inviting his friend to Florence, and of announcing to Petrarch
at the same time that the forfeited estates of his family had been
restored to him. In this manner an intimate friendship grew up
between them to be parted only by death. Common interests
and common literary pursuits were the natural basis of their
friendship, and both occupy prominent positions in the early
history of that great intellectual revival commonly called the
Renaissance.

During the 14th century the study of ancient literature was
at a low ebb in Italy. The interest of the lay world was engrossed
by political struggles, and the treasures of classical history and
poetry were at the mercy of monks, too lazy or too ignorant to
use, or even to preserve them. Boccaccio himself told that,
on asking to see the library of the celebrated monastery of
Monte Cassino, he was shown into a dusty room without a door
to it. Many of the valuable manuscripts were mutilated; and
his guide told him that the monks were in the habit of tearing
leaves from the codices to turn them into psalters for children,
or amulets for women at the price of four or five soldi apiece.

10 4

BOCCACCIO

Boccaccio did all in his power to remove by word and example
this barbarous indifference. He bought or copied with his own
hand numerous valuable manuscripts, and an old writer remarks
that if Boccacci